Biodiversity

DESCRIPTION OF THE SKATES (CHONDRICHTHYES)

2007-04-08T17:08:00.000+02:00

Bathyraja smithii (African softnose skate)

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.3 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Separate.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 90–100 degrees.
Snout shape obtuse.
Snout length 2–2.6 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 24–28.
Ocular thorns absent.
Nuchal thorns absent.
Scapular thorns absent.
Ventral disc surface smooth.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 68–71.
Total length 114 cm.
Length DW 85 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 1.
Thorns on tail absent.
Number of mid dorsal thorns 14–19.
Ventral base colour white.
Maximum number of median nuchal thorns 0.
Ventral surface ornamentation black mucous pores absent.
IUCN status Not on IUCN Red data list.

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=10121&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

Cruriraja parcomaculata (Roughnose legskate)

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.4 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Separate.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 112–120 degrees.
Snout shape pointed.
Snout length 2.6–3.5 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 39–44.
Ocular thorns thorns on the inner margin of orbit present.
Nuchal thorns absent.
Scapular thorns 3 on each side.
Ventral disc surface smooth.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 66–69.
Total length 55 cm.
Length DW 35 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 8.
Thorns on tail present.
Number of mid dorsal thorns 30–45.
Ventral base colour white.
Maximum number of median nuchal thorns 0.
Ventral surface ornamentation black mucous pores absent.
IUCN status Not on IUCN Red data list.

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=10122&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

Neoraja stehmanni (African Pygmy skate)

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.4 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Continuous.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 115–130 degrees.
Snout shape rounded.
Snout length 2.9–3.8 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 38–44.
Ocular thorns preorbital and postorbital thorns present.
Nuchal thorns present.
Scapular thorns 1 on each side.
Ventral disc surface smooth.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 65–74.
Total length 35 cm.
Length DW 20 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns unknown.
Thorns on tail present.
Number of mid dorsal thorns 11–38.
Ventral base colour pale.
Maximum number of median nuchal thorns 4.
Ventral surface ornamentation black mucous pores absent.
IUCN status Not on IUCN Red data list.

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=25558&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

Raja alba (Spearnose skate)

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.5 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Separate.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 105 degrees.
Snout shape sharply pointed.
Snout length 2.5–3.2 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 40–45.
Ocular thorns thorns on the inner margin of orbit present.
Nuchal thorns unknown.
Scapular thorns unknown.
Ventral disc surface with spinules.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 62–67.
Total length 230 cm.
Length DW 160 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 2.
Thorns on tail present.
Number of mid dorsal thorns 16–30.
Ventral base colour white.
Ventral surface ornamentation black mucous pores absent.
IUCN status Endangered.

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=7613&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

Raja doutrei (Violet skate)

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.2 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Separate.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 72 degrees.
Snout shape sharply pointed.
Snout length 3.8–4 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 32.
Ocular thorns thorns on the inner margin of orbit present.
Nuchal thorns unknown.
Scapular thorns unknown.
Ventral disc surface with spines.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 43–49.
Total length 100 cm.
Length DW 70 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 2.
Thorns on tail unknown.
Number of mid dorsal thorns 13–26.
Ventral base colour brown.
Ventral surface ornamentation with black mucous pores.
IUCN status Not on IUCN Red data list.

http://filaman/ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.cfm?ID=5012&genusname=Dipturus&speciesname=doutrei

Raja miraletus (Twineye skate)

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.4 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Separate.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 110–116 degrees.
Snout shape pointed.
Snout length 2.3–3.1 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 42–50.
Ocular thorns thorns on the inner margin of orbit present.
Nuchal thorns present.
Scapular thorns unknown.
Ventral disc surface with spinules.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 44–52.
Total length 50 cm.
Length DW 35 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns unknown.
Thorns on tail present.
Number of mid dorsal thorns 10–27.
Ventral base colour pale.
Maximum number of median nuchal thorns 0–2.
Ventral surface ornamentation black mucous pores absent.
IUCN status Not on IUCN Red data list.

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=5014&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=5014&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=5014&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

Raja pullopunctata (Slime skate)

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.4 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Separate.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 92–108 degrees.
Snout shape pointed.
Snout length 3.4–4.1 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 53–58.
Ocular thorns thorns on the inner margin of orbit present.
Nuchal thorns present.
Scapular thorns unknown.
Ventral disc surface with spinules.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 50–58.
Total length 125 cm.
Length DW 94 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 2.
Thorns on tail unknown.
Number of mid dorsal thorns 10–12.
Ventral base colour grey.
Maximum number of median nuchal thorns 2.
Ventral surface ornamentation with black mucous pores.
IUCN status Data deficient.

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=7960&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

Raja radiata

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.3 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Separate.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 100 degrees.
Snout shape obtuse.
Snout length 2.1–2.4 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 37–39.
Ocular thorns preorbital and postorbital thorns present.
Nuchal thorns present.
Scapular thorns 3 on each side.
Ventral disc surface smooth.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 58–62.
Total length 100 cm.
Length DW 77 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 0.
Thorns on tail present.
Number of mid dorsal thorns 11–19.
Ventral base colour white.
Maximum number of median nuchal thorns 2.
Ventral surface ornamentation black mucous pores absent.
IUCN status Not on IUCN Red data list.

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=2565&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=2565&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

Raja wallacei (Blancmange skate)

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.3 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Separate.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 110 degrees.
Snout shape unknown.
Snout length 2.3–3.1 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 59–67.
Ocular thorns preorbital and postorbital thorns present.
Nuchal thorns present.
Scapular thorns unknown.
Ventral disc surface with spinules.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 70.
Total length 92 cm.
Length DW 53 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 0.
Thorns on tail unknown.
Number of mid dorsal thorns 34.
Ventral base colour pale.
Maximum number of median nuchal thorns 7.
Ventral surface ornamentation black mucous pores absent.
IUCN status Not on IUCN Red data list.

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=7964&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=7964&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

Raja lanceorostrata (Rattail skate)

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.3 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Separate.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 66 degrees.
Snout shape pointed.
Snout length 5.2–7.4 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 31.
Ocular thorns preorbital and postorbital thorns present.
Nuchal thorns present.
Scapular thorns absent.
Ventral disc surface smooth.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 56–57.
Total length 82 cm.
Length DW 55 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 1.
Thorns on tail unknown.
Number of mid dorsal thorns 26.
Ventral base colour grey.
Maximum number of median nuchal thorns 1.
Ventral surface ornamentation black mucous pores absent.
IUCN status Data deficient.

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=7961&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

Cruriraja triangularis (Triangular leg skate)

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.3 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Separate.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 90 degrees.
Snout shape pointed.
Snout length 3.9 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 42–46.
Ocular thorns thorns on the inner margin of orbit present.
Nuchal thorns present.
Scapular thorns unknown.
Ventral disc surface unknown.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 65–70.
Total length 41 cm.
Length DW 24 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 4.
Thorns on tail unknown.
Ventral base colour pale.
Maximum number of median nuchal thorns 5.
Ventral surface ornamentation black mucous pores absent.
IUCN status Not on IUCN Red data list.

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=7959&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

Please note that all distribution images are that of Africa, and in some cases Africa and Eurasia. Blue points indicate distribution data points.

Descriptions from: Smith M, Heemstra P (1986) Smith's Sea Fishes. Macmillan Publishers, South Africa, ISBN 0869542664, pp 1047

INTERACTIVE DELTA KEY ON THE SKATES (CHONDRICHTHYES)

2007-04-08T16:56:00.000+02:00

Key 5a. Confirmatory characters

Characters: 20 in data, 12 included, 9 in key.
Items: 11
in data, 11 included, 11 in key.
Parameters: Rbase = 1.40 Abase =
2.00 Reuse = 1.01 Varywt = .80
Characters included: 1–2 4
7–10 14–15 17 19–20
Character reliabilities:
1–20,5.0

1(0).

Maximum number of
interdorsal thorns 0 ... 2
Maximum number of
interdorsal thorns 1... Bathyraja smithii

Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 8... Cruriraja
parcomaculata

Maximum number of interdorsal thorns unknown... 3
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 2... 4
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 1... Raja
lanceorostrata

Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 4... Cruriraja
triangularis

2(1).

Snout shape obtuse; Scapular thorns 3 on each side; Ventral disc surface
smooth; Thorns on tail present ... Raja radiata

Snout shape unknown; Scapular thorns unknown; Ventral disc surface with
spinules; Thorns on tail unknown... Raja
wallacei

3(1).

Snout shape rounded; Scapular thorns 1 on each side; Ventral disc surface
smooth; First dorsal fin Continuous ... Neoraja stehmanni

Snout shape pointed; Scapular thorns unknown; Ventral disc surface with
spinules; First dorsal fin Separate... Raja
miraletus

4(1).

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.4 times as broad as long; ventral base
colour grey; IUCN status Data deficient ... Raja pullopunctata

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.5 times as broad as long; ventral base
colour white; IUCN status Endangered... Raja alba

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.2 times as broad as long; ventral base
colour brown; IUCN status Not on IUCN Red data list... Raja
doutrei

Cite this publication as:
‘My_Authors (2000 onwards). ‘My_Title: Descriptions, Illustrations,
Identification, and Information Retrieval. Version: 21st September 2000. http://My_URL’. Dallwitz (1980) and Dallwitz,
Paine and Zurcher (1993, 1995, 2000) should also be cited (see References).

Index

DESCRIPTIONS OF WHALES AND DOLPHINS

2007-04-06T12:19:00.000+02:00

Balaena glacialis (Southern Right Whale)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=Balaena+glacialis

Distribution Arctic and Sub Antarctica; or near the coast; or Southern hemisphere.
Conseravation status Depleted; or Endangered.
Teeth 0 number (if unknown leave blank).
Size 14–17 m.
Weight 54500 kg.
Echolocation absent.
Dorsal fin absent.
Throat grooves absent.
Colour dorsal black-blue.
Colour ventral pale black-blue.
Migration yes.
Diet copepods.
Breeding grounds South Africa.
Head contains wart-like collosities.
Distinctive characteristic none.
Snout arched.
Thoracic Vertebrae 14 number (if unknown leave blank).
Lumbar Vertebrae 12 number (if unknown leave blank).
Caudal Vertebrae 24 number (if unknown leave blank).
Pelvis vestigial.
Body robust.
Baleen plates present Yes.
Teeth present No.

Megaptera novaeangliae (Humpback Whale)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=Humpback+whale

Distribution World wide.
Conseravation status Depleted; or Endangered.
Teeth 0 number (if unknown leave blank).
Size 14–15 m.
Weight 35000 kg.
Echolocation absent.
Dorsal fin present.
Throat grooves present.
Colour dorsal white.
Colour ventral white.
Migration yes.
Diet krill.
Breeding grounds Tropical and Subtropical.
Head small knobs on upper jaw.
Distinctive characteristic long, narrow flippers.
Snout unknown.
Thoracic Vertebrae 14 number (if unknown leave blank).
Lumbar Vertebrae 10 number (if unknown leave blank).
Caudal Vertebrae 22 number (if unknown leave blank).
Pelvis vestigial.
Body stocky.
Baleen plates present Yes.
Teeth present No.

Physeter macrocephalus (Sperm Whale)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=Sperm+whale

Distribution World wide; or inshore.
Conseravation status Depleted; or Endangered.
Teeth 48 number (if unknown leave blank).
Size 15–18 m.
Weight 36000 kg.
Echolocation present.
Dorsal fin present.
Throat grooves unknown.
Colour dorsal grey.
Colour ventral grey.
Migration unknown.
Diet squid; or octopus.
Breeding grounds Unknown.
Head contains spermaceti; or enormous, blunt.
Distinctive characteristic enormous, blunt head.
Snout unknown.
Thoracic Vertebrae 11 number (if unknown leave blank).
Lumbar Vertebrae 8 number (if unknown leave blank).
Caudal Vertebrae 24 number (if unknown leave blank).
Pelvis absent.
Body very large and prune-like.
Baleen plates present No.
Teeth present Yes.

Orcinus orca (Killer Whale)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=Killer+whale

Distribution Arctic and Sub Antarctica; or Southern Africa.
Conseravation status Low risk.
Teeth 44 number (if unknown leave blank).
Size 7–9 m.
Weight 5000 kg.
Echolocation present.
Dorsal fin present.
Throat grooves unknown.
Colour dorsal black.
Colour ventral white.
Migration yes.
Diet squid; or fish; or birds; or seals; or dolphins; or larger whales.
Breeding grounds Unknown.
Head oval , white patch behind eye.
Distinctive characteristic gey saddle behind dorsal fin.
Snout unknown.
Thoracic Vertebrae 12 number (if unknown leave blank).
Lumbar Vertebrae 10 number (if unknown leave blank).
Caudal Vertebrae 23 number (if unknown leave blank).
Pelvis absent.
Body torpedo shaped.
Baleen plates present No.
Teeth present Yes.

Delphinus delphis (Common Dolphin)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=common+dolphin

Distribution warm temperate waters; or near the coast.
Conseravation status Unknown.
Size 2.5 m.
Weight 160 kg.
Echolocation unknown.
Dorsal fin present.
Throat grooves unknown.
Colour dorsal black; or pale-grey.
Colour ventral white.
Migration unknown.
Diet shoaling pelagic fish.
Breeding grounds Unknown.
Head long, narrow, pointed beak.
Distinctive characteristic criss-cross figure-of-eight pattern on the sides.
School size 1000–5000 number (if unknown leave blank).
Snout unknown.
Pelvis unknown.
Body torpedo shaped.
Baleen plates present No.
Teeth present Yes.

Tursiops truncatus (Bottlenosed dolphin)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=bottlenosed+dolphin

Distribution inshore; or near the coast; or Southern Africa.
Conseravation status Vulnerable; or Depleted.
Teeth 98 number (if unknown leave blank).
Size 2.6–3.3 m.
Weight 200 kg.
Echolocation present.
Dorsal fin present.
Throat grooves unknown.
Colour dorsal grey; or dark-grey.
Colour ventral off-white speckled with grey spots.
Migration unknown.
Diet squid; or fish.
Breeding grounds Unknown.
Head bottle-shaped.
Distinctive characteristic darker grey "cape" on the back.
School size 20–50 number (if unknown leave blank).
Snout moderate length.
Thoracic Vertebrae 14 number (if unknown leave blank).
Lumbar Vertebrae 15 number (if unknown leave blank).
Caudal Vertebrae 29 number (if unknown leave blank).
Pelvis absent.
Body robust.
Baleen plates present No.
Teeth present Yes.

Cephalorhynchus heavisidii (Heaviside's Dolphin)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=Heavisides+dolphin&btnG=Search+Images

Distribution near the coast; or Southern Africa.
Conseravation status Unknown.
Size 1.7 m.
Echolocation unknown.
Dorsal fin present.
Throat grooves unknown.
Colour dorsal black.
Colour ventral white.
Migration unknown.
Diet fish.
Breeding grounds Unknown.
Head indistinct beak.
Distinctive characteristic white lobe pointing obliquely backwards towards the tail.
Snout rounded.
Pelvis unknown.
Body thick-set; or torpedo shaped.
Baleen plates present No.
Teeth present Yes.

Lagenorhynchus obscurus (Dusky Dolphin)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=Dusky+dolphin

Distribution near the coast; or Southern hemisphere.
Conseravation status Unknown.
Size 1.9 m.
Weight 115 kg.
Echolocation unknown.
Dorsal fin present.
Throat grooves unknown.
Colour dorsal black; or dark-grey.
Colour ventral white; or pale grey-white.
Migration unknown.
Diet squid; or fish.
Breeding grounds Unknown.
Head very short, black-tipped beak.
Distinctive characteristic two-tone dorsal fin.
Snout rounded.
Pelvis unknown.
Body torpedo shaped.
Baleen plates present No.
Teeth present Yes.

Stenella coeruleoalba (Striped Dolphin)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=Striped+dolphin

Distribution warm temperate waters; or near the coast.
Conseravation status Low risk.
Size 2.5 m.
Weight 150 kg.
Echolocation unknown.
Dorsal fin present.
Throat grooves unknown.
Colour dorsal dark blue-grey.
Colour ventral white.
Migration unknown.
Diet squid; or fish.
Breeding grounds Unknown.
Head three distinct grey lines running from the eye.
Distinctive characteristic 3 grey lines running backwards from the eye.
School size 5–400 number (if unknown leave blank).
Pelvis unknown.
Body torpedo shaped.
Baleen plates present No.
Teeth present Yes.

Sousa plumbea (Humpback Dolphin)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=Humpback+dolphin

Distribution inshore; or Southern Africa.
Conseravation status Vulnerable.
Size 2.8 m.
Weight 280 kg.
Echolocation unknown.
Dorsal fin present.
Throat grooves unknown.
Colour dorsal dark-grey.
Colour ventral off-white.
Migration unknown.
Diet krill; or fish.
Breeding grounds Unknown.
Head long, narrow, pointed beak.
Distinctive characteristic mid dorsal elongate ridge on back.
School size 5–25 number (if unknown leave blank).
Snout unknown.
Pelvis unknown.
Body torpedo shaped.
Baleen plates present No.
Teeth present Yes.

Lissodelphis peronii (Southern Right Whale Dolphin)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=Lissodelphis+peronii

Distribution cold temperate waters; or Southern hemisphere.
Conseravation status Unknown.
Size 2.3 m.
Weight 60 kg.
Echolocation present.
Dorsal fin absent.
Throat grooves unknown.
Colour dorsal black.
Colour ventral white.
Migration unknown.
Diet squid; or fish; or octopus; or tiny crustaceans.
Breeding grounds Unknown.
Head white face.
Distinctive characteristic dorsal fin absent.
Snout rounded.
Pelvis unknown.
Body torpedo shaped.
Baleen plates present No.
Teeth present Yes.

References:

Branch, G.M., Griffiths, C.L., Branch, M.L., Beckley, L.E.(2002) Two Oceans: A guide to the Marine Life of Southern Africa, David Philips Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa, 360pp
Gaskin, D.E.(1982) The Ecolgy of Whales and Dolphins, BAS Printers Ltd, Britain, 459pp
Macdonald, D., Norris, S.(2001) The New Encyclopedia of Mammals, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 930pp
Purves, P.E. & Pilleri G.E.(1983) Echolocation in Whales and Dolphins, Galliard Printes Ltd, Great Britain, 261pp
http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/cetaceans/

DESCRIPTION OF 10 COMMON ATLANTIC OCEAN JELLYFISH

2007-04-06T11:33:00.000+02:00

Description of Cyanea capillata

Shape umbrella.
Bell description unknown.
Bell diameter 50–250 cm.
Bell height 50–250 cm.
Bell margin scalloped.
Marginal lappets present.
Exumbrella surface unknown.
Mesoglea unknown.
Tentacles present.
Tentacle description thin; or clustered; or whip-like; or hollow; or long.
Tentacle location arise from subumbrella surface.
Mouth present.
Tiny pores "mouthlets" absent.
Stomach description unknown.
Stomach poaches present.
Oral arms present.
Oral arm description unknown.
Gonad position unknown.
Colour orange-tan oral arms.
Geographical range around South African coast none.
Synonyms lion's mane jellyfish; or red jelly.

http://www.soil.msu.ru/~invert/main_eng/photoalbum/cyanea.html

Description of Pelagia noticulata

Shape umbrella.
Bell description square hemispherical; or deep.
Bell diameter 12 cm.
Bell margin scalloped.
Marginal lappets present.
Marginal lappet number 16.
Exumbrella surface warty.
Mesoglea unknown.
Tentacles present.
Tentacle description whip-like; or long.
Tentacle number 8.
Tentacle location marginal.
Rhopalia number 8.
Mouth present.
Tiny pores "mouthlets" absent.
Stomach description unknown.
Stomach poaches present.
Oral arms present.
Oral arm description warty; or frilly.
Gonad position center of bell.
Colour red-magenta-brown spots on oral arms; or red-magenta-brown spots on exumbrella.
Geographical range around South African coast Fasle Bay.
Synonyms night-light jellyfish.

http://www.njscuba.net/biology/sw_jellies.html

Description of Eupilema inexpectata

Shape umbrella.
Bell description shallow; or hemispherical.
Bell diameter 30 cm.
Bell margin "serrated".
Marginal lappets present.
Marginal lappet number 8.
Exumbrella surface finely granular.
Mesoglea thicker in center.
Tentacles absent.
Tentacle description absent.
Tentacle location absent.
Rhopalia number 8.
Mouth absent.
Tiny pores "mouthlets" present.
Stomach description unknown.
Stomach poaches unknown.
Oral arms present.
Oral arm description fused at base; or smooth.
Gonad position unknown.
Colour variable.
Geographical range around South African coast south coast; or west coast; or east coast.
Synonyms root-mouthed jellyfish.

Taken from: Boltovskoy D (Ed) (1999) South Atlantic Zooplankton. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, pp 868. ISBN 90-5782-035-8

Description of Aequorea conica

Shape conical.
Bell description domed apex.
Bell diameter 0.9 cm.
Bell height 1–1.2 cm.
Bell margin smooth.
Marginal lappets absent.
Exumbrella surface smooth.
Mesoglea thick.
Tentacles present.
Tentacle description thin; or short.
Tentacle number 20–30.
Tentacle location marginal.
Mouth present.
Tiny pores "mouthlets" absent.
Stomach description unknown.
Stomach poaches unknown.
Oral arms absent.
Oral arm description absent.
Gonad position radial canals.
Colour variable.
Geographical range around South African coast west coast.
Synonyms crystal jellyfish.

Taken from:Boltovskoy D (Ed) (1999) South Atlantic Zooplankton. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, pp 868. ISBN 90-5782-035-8

Description of Periphylla periphylla

Shape conical.
Bell description domed apex.
Bell diameter 25 cm.
Bell height 35 cm.
Bell margin scalloped.
Marginal lappets present.
Marginal lappet number 16.
Exumbrella surface smooth.
Mesoglea rigid; or thick.
Tentacles present.
Tentacle description stiff; or solid.
Tentacle number 12.
Tentacle location marginal.
Rhopalia number 4.
Mouth present.
Tiny pores "mouthlets" absent.
Stomach description large.
Stomach poaches unknown.
Oral arms absent.
Oral arm description absent.
Gonad position interradial septa.
Colour red-brown manubrium and stomach.
Geographical range around South African coast west coast.
Synonyms helmet jelly.

http://jellieszone.com/periphylla.htm

Description of Chrysaora hysoscella

Shape umbrella.
Bell description flatter than a hemisphere; or shallow.
Bell diameter 15–28 cm.
Bell margin scalloped.
Marginal lappets present.
Marginal lappet number 32–48.
Exumbrella surface smooth.
Mesoglea thick.
Tentacles present.
Tentacle description hollow; or long.
Tentacle number 24.
Tentacle location between cleft of lappets; or marginal.
Rhopalia number 8.
Mouth present.
Tiny pores "mouthlets" absent.
Stomach description unknown.
Stomach poaches present.
Oral arms present.
Oral arm description narrow; or v-shaped; or frilly.
Oral arm number 4.
Gonad position stomach.
Colour brown v-shaped bans on exumbrella; or brown lappets.
Geographical range around South African coast west coast.
Synonyms red-banded jellyfish; or compass jellyfish; or sea nettle.

http://www.riminiambiente.it/index.jsp?idsection=32&idsubsection=162

Description of Solmundella bitentaculata

Shape bell-shaped.
Bell description domed apex.
Bell diameter 0.5 cm.
Bell height 0.5 cm.
Bell margin scalloped.
Marginal lappets unknown.
Exumbrella surface unknown.
Mesoglea thick at apex.
Tentacles present.
Tentacle description long.
Tentacle number 2.
Tentacle location above bell edge.
Mouth present.
Tiny pores "mouthlets" absent.
Stomach description short; or broad; or circular.
Stomach poaches present.
Oral arms absent.
Oral arm description absent.
Gonad position stomach.
Colour variable.
Geographical range around South African coast west coast.
Synonyms unknown.

http://www.medusozoa.com/hydro_pics.html

Description of Liriope tetraphylla

Shape umbrella.
Bell description flat at apex; or hemispherical.
Bell diameter 1–3 cm.
Bell margin smooth.
Marginal lappets absent.
Exumbrella surface unknown.
Mesoglea thin; or thick at apex.
Tentacles present.
Tentacle description hollow; or long.
Tentacle number 4.
Tentacle location marginal.
Tiny pores "mouthlets" present.
Stomach description small.
Stomach poaches unknown.
Oral arms absent.
Oral arm description absent.
Gonad position radial canals.
Colour variable.
Geographical range around South African coast west coast.

http://www.usp.br/cbm/pesquisa/migotto/hidromedusas.html

Description of Carybdea alata

Shape cubodial.
Bell description flat at apex; or deep.
Bell diameter 2 cm.
Bell height 4 cm.
Bell margin smooth.
Marginal lappets absent.
Exumbrella surface smooth.
Mesoglea thin.
Tentacles present.
Tentacle description whip-like; or long.
Tentacle number 4.
Tentacle location at each corner of bell.
Mouth present.
Tiny pores "mouthlets" absent.
Stomach description unknown.
Stomach poaches present.
Oral arms absent.
Oral arm description absent.
Gonad position radial sinus.
Colour variable.
Geographical range around South African coast south coast; or west coast.
Synonyms box jellyfish; or sea wasp.

http://life.bio.sunysb.edu/marinebio/plankton.html

Description of Aurelia aurita

Shape umbrella.
Bell description shallow.
Bell diameter 30 cm.
Bell margin scalloped.
Marginal lappets unknown.
Exumbrella surface smooth.
Tentacles present.
Tentacle description hollow; or short.
Tentacle location marginal.
Mouth present.
Tiny pores "mouthlets" absent.
Stomach description unknown.
Stomach poaches present.
Oral arms present.
Oral arm description v-shaped.
Gonad position stomach.
Colour variable.
Geographical range around South African coast west coast.
Synonyms moon jellyfish.

http://www.aquarium-du-golfe.com/english/wallpaper.php

Primary reference: Boltovskoy D (Ed) (1999) South Atlantic Zooplankton. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, pp 868. ISBN 90-5782-035-8

Secondary refernce:Pages F, Gili JP and Bouillon J (1992) Medusa (Hydrozoa, Scyphozoa, Cubozoa) of the Benguela Current. Scientia Marina 56:1-64

INTERACTIVE KEY ON DOLPHINS AND WHALES

2007-04-06T11:11:00.000+02:00

Key 5a. Confirmatory characters

Characters: 22 in data, 15 included, 8 in key.
Items: 11 in data, 11 included, 14 in key.
Parameters: Rbase = 1.40 Abase = 2.00 Reuse = 1.01 Varywt = .80
Characters included: 1–2 6–13 15 19–22
Character reliabilities: 1–22,5.0

1(0).

Colour dorsal black-blue ... Balaena glacialis
Colour dorsal white... Megaptera novaeangliae
Colour dorsal black... 2
Colour dorsal pale-grey... Delphinus delphis
Colour dorsal grey... 5
Colour dorsal dark-grey... 6
Colour dorsal dark blue-grey... Stenella coeruleoalba

2(1).

Echolocation present ... 3
Echolocation unknown... 4

3(2).

Snout rounded; Dorsal fin absent; Migration unknown; Conseravation status Unknown ... Lissodelphis peronii
Snout unknown; Dorsal fin present; Migration yes; Conseravation status Low risk... Orcinus orca

4(2).

Snout rounded ... Cephalorhynchus heavisidii, Lagenorhynchus obscurus
Snout unknown... Delphinus delphis

5(1).

Colour ventral off-white speckled with grey spots; Snout moderate length; Body robust ... Tursiops truncatus
Colour ventral grey; Snout unknown; Body very large and prune-like... Physeter macrocephalus

6(1).

Snout moderate length ... Tursiops truncatus
Snout rounded... Lagenorhynchus obscurus
Snout unknown... Sousa plumbea

INTERACTIVE KEY ON ATLANTIC OCEAN JELLYFISH

2007-04-06T10:27:00.000+02:00

Characters: 25 in data, 19 included, 10 in key.
Items: 10 in data, 10 included, 10 in key.
Parameters: Rbase = 1.40 Abase = 2.00 Reuse = 1.01 Varywt = .80
Characters included: 1–2 5–6 8–11 13 15–20 22–25
Character reliabilities: 1–25,5.0

1(0).

Gonad position center of bell ... Pelagia noticulata
Gonad position stomach... 2
Gonad position interradial septa... Periphylla periphylla
Gonad position radial canals... 4
Gonad position radial sinus... Carybdea alata
Gonad position unknown... 5

2(1).

Marginal lappets present ... Chrysaora hysoscella
Marginal lappets unknown... 3

3(2).

Exumbrella surface smooth; shape umbrella; bell description shallow;
tentacle location marginal ... Aurelia aurita
Exumbrella surface unknown; shape bell-shaped; bell description domed apex; tentacle location above bell edge... Solmundella bitentaculata

4(1).

Exumbrella surface smooth; tiny pores "mouthlets" absent; stomach
description unknown; shape conical ... Aequorea conica
Exumbrella surface unknown; tiny pores "mouthlets" present; stomach
description small; shape umbrella... Liriope tetraphylla

5(1).

Exumbrella surface finely granular; tiny pores "mouthlets" present; bell
margin "serrated"; mesoglea thicker in center ... Eupilema inexpectata
Exumbrella surface unknown; tiny pores "mouthlets" absent; bell margin
scalloped; mesoglea unknown... Cyanea capillata

Chapter 7- High biodiversity under threat POPULARITY POLL

2007-04-02T08:38:00.000+02:00

Please all, take some time to give chapter 7 a rating from 1-10.
I found it excrutiating! I give it a 4...

A LOSS OF GENETIC INTEGRITY- Hybridization in the most endangered canid, Canis simensis

2007-04-01T16:58:00.000+02:00

By Dane E. McDonald

Image 1 Canis simensis with characteristic fur markings

Canis simensis, also called the Ethiopian wolf or Simien jackal, is a canid that occurs in the geographical isolation of a compact group of Ethiopian mountains or highlands (Gottelli et al, 2004). This animal’s geographic isolation can be explained by the last glaciation (70 000-10 000 years BP), which allowed its cold-adapted European ancestors (gray wolves and coyotes) to immigrate into Africa (Gottelli et al 2004; Gottelli et al 1994).

C. simensis is endemic to the Ethiopian highlands and occur above the tree line at altitudes above 3000 meters (IUCN data). This area is generally termed alpine tundra (Miller, 2004) or more specifically Afro-alpine habitat (Gottelli et al, 1994). According to Sillero-Zubiri and Macdonald (1998) the Afro-alpine zone is characterized by short, sparse vegetation, dominated by Alchemilla sp. pasture and a short herb community including Helichrysum sp. and Artemisia sp. shrubs. Marino et al (2006) suggests that the optimal habitat would be one with open and flat landscapes with meadows and grasslands, which sustain an exceptionally high biomass of rodents.

The giant mole rat, Tachyoryctes macrocephalus, is one of the most common and important prey species that occur in this zone. C. simensis has developed an extreme feeding specialization on such rodents (Gottelli et al, 2004). It follows that its distribution is also limited by the availability of these rodents.

The Conservation Problem

Ethiopian wolves are diurnal, medium-sized canids with body mass ranging between thirteen and twenty kilograms (Randall et al, 2006; Haydon et al, 2002). According to Gottelli et al (1994) these animals are very distinctive, having a reddish coat, with white underparts, throat, chest, and tail markings (Image 1). They also display a skull morphology that indicates adaptations for catching rodents. Dalton et al (unpublished data) identifies features such as a very elongated skull with long jaws in which teeth (especially the premolars) are widely spaced. According to Gottelli et al (1994) they are territorial, social animals that live in multi-male packs, which have been observed to be as large as thirteen adults. A general trend shows that only dominant females breed. This is due to dominance hierarchies within packs (Sillero-Zubiri et al, 1996).

Image 2 A map of C. simensis habitat in the Ethiopian highlands showing the large historic extent (yellow) and the limited present extent (red)

Ethiopian wolves are currently the most endangered canids in the world, with approximately 600 individuals remaining (Randall et al, 2006). They are limited to seven isolated Afro-alpine ranges across the Ethiopian highlands (Image 2). In a study done by Gottelli et al (1994) hybridization with domestic dogs was identified as one of the main threats to the genetic integrity of the canids in this area. Andersone et al (2002) suggest that hybridization has the potential to produce morphological, physiological and behavioural changes in wild canids. This deserves serious attention due to its ecological and management consequences.

Gottelli et al (1994) explains that the Ethiopian highlands are among the most densely populated agricultural areas, where Afro-alpine grasslands are increasingly being used for grazing. As a result, Ethiopian wolves cannot easily avoid contact with humans and their domestic dogs. This is exemplified in the Bale Mountain area (Image 2) where 8500 surrounding village households have more than 12500 domestic dogs (Randall et al, 2006).

Recommendations

By using mt DNA restriction fragments and microsatellite alleles, Gottelli et al (1994) provided convincing evidence that male domestic dogs were hybridizing with female (Web valley) Ethiopian wolves. It was recommended that feral domestic dogs be controlled to eliminate this threat. Furthermore captive breeding with genetically pure founders was suggested with immediate effect.

Image 3..

References

Andersone BZ, Lucchini V, Ozolins J (2002) Hybridisation between wolves and dogs in Latvia as documented using mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA markers. Mammalian Biology 67: 79-90

Gottelli D, Marino J, Sillero-Zubiri C, Funk SM (2004) The effect of the last glacial age on speciation and population genetic structure of the endangered Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis). Molecular ecology 13: 2275-2286

Gottelli D, Sillero-Zubiri C, Applebaum GD, Roy MS, Girman DJ, Garcia-Moreno J, Ostrander EA, Wayne RK (1994) Molecular genetics of the most endangered canid: the Ethiopian wolf Canis simensis. Molecular ecology 3: 301-312

IUCN data (web reference)- http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/3748/doc

Marino J, Sillero-Zubiri C, Macdonald DW (2006) Trends, dynamics, and resilience of an Ethiopian wolf population. Animal conservation 9: 49-58

Miller, GT (2004) Living in the environment-13th Ed. McGraw/Hill, Canada.

Randall DA, Marino J, Haydon DT, Sillero-Zubiri C, Knobel DL, Tallents LA, Macdonald DW, Laurenson MK (2006) An integrated disease management strategy for the control of rabies in Ethiopian wolves Biological conservation 131: 151-162

Sillero-Zubiri C, Gottelli D, Macdonald DW (1996) Male philopatry, extra-pack copulations and inbreeding avoidance in Ethiopian wolves (Canis simensis). Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology 38:331-340 In: Randall DA, Marino J, Haydon DT, Sillero-Zubiri C, Knobel DL, Tallents LA, Macdonald DW, Laurenson MK (2006) An integrated disease management strategy for the control of rabies in Ethiopian wolves Biological conservation 131: 151-162

Sillero-Zubiri C, Macdonald DW (1998) Scent marking and territorial behaviour of Ethiopian wolves Canis simensis. J. Zool, Lond. 245: 351-361

Image credits: National Geographic magazine, March 2006.
photographs by: Anup Shah
Available from:
http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0603/feature6/index.html

INTERACTIVE KEY ON WHALES AND DOLPHINS

2007-04-01T11:31:00.000+02:00

Key 5a. Confirmatory characters

Characters: 21 in data, 14 included, 8 in key.
Items: 11 in data, 11 included, 14 in key.
Parameters: Rbase = 1.40 Abase = 2.00 Reuse = 1.01 Varywt = .80
Characters included: 1–2 6–14 16 20–21
Character reliabilities: 1–21,5.0

1(0).

Colour above
black-blue ... Balaena glacialis

Colour above white... Megaptera novaeangliae

Colour above black... 2
Colour above
pale-grey... Delphinus delphis

Colour above grey... 5
Colour above
dark-grey... 6
Colour above dark
blue-grey... Stenella coeruleoalba

2(1).

Echolocation present ... 3
Echolocation
unknown... 4

3(2).

Snout rounded; Dorsal fin absent; Migration unknown; Attack humans unknown
... Lissodelphis peronii

Snout unknown; Dorsal fin present; Migration yes; Attack humans
never... Orcinus orca

4(2).

Snout rounded ... Cephalorhynchus
heavisidii, Lagenorhynchus obscurus

Snout unknown... Delphinus delphis

5(1).

Colour below off-white speckled with grey spots; Snout moderate length;
Body robust ... Tursiops truncatus

Colour below grey; Snout unknown; Body very large and
prune-like... Physeter macrocephalus

6(1).

Snout moderate length ... Tursiops truncatus

Snout rounded... Lagenorhynchus obscurus

Snout unknown... Sousa plumbea

KEY ON DOLPHINS AND WHALES

2007-04-01T10:21:00.000+02:00

Characters: 23 in data, 16 included, 1 in key.
Items: 11 in data, 11 included, 11 in key.
Parameters: Rbase = 1.40 Abase = 2.00 Reuse = 1.01 Varywt = .80
Characters included: 1–2 6–16 18 22–23
Character reliabilities: 1–23,5.0

1(0).

* Distinctive characteristic criss-cross figure-of-eight pattern on the sides ... Delphinus delphis
* Distinctive characteristic darker grey "cape" on the back... Tursiops truncatus
* Distinctive characteristic white lobe pointing obliquely backwards towards the tail... Cephalorhynchus heavisidii
* Distinctive characteristic 3 grey lines running backwards from the eye... Stenella coeruleoalba
* Distinctive characteristic mid dorsal elongate ridge on back... Sousa plumbea
* Distinctive characteristic long, narrow flippers... Megaptera novaeangliae
* Distinctive characteristic enormous, blunt head... Physeter macrocephalus
* Distinctive characteristic gey saddle behind dorsal fin... Orcinus orca
* Distinctive characteristic two-tone dorsal fin... Lagenorhynchus obscurus
* Distinctive characteristic dorsal fin absent... Lissodelphis peronii
* Distinctive characteristic none... Balaena glacialis

REFERENCING??

2007-03-31T14:01:00.000+02:00

I've got a question to anyone that's willing to help:

Is it acceptable to use number as well as formal (stating authority in full) referencing simultaneously in-text? E.g. "Butterlies exist as metapopulations [3]. According to Jackson (1993) it is the most prevalent population structure."
(Bear in mind that these are two different sources).

PRESENTATION ABSTRACT-METAPOPULATIONS WITH A SPECIAL FOCUS ON BUTTERFLY POPULATIONS

2007-03-28T16:32:00.000+02:00

In 1969 and 1970, Richard Levins introduced the term “metapopulation” in his work on the biological control of pests (Hanski and Gilpin, 1997; Levins, 1969). He used models of migration, extinction, and local fluctuation to study the population processes of pests in a heterogenous environment (Levins, 1969). Levin’s work marked the beginning of contemporary metapopulation biology.

The literal meaning of the word metapopulation is a ‘population of populations’. Hanski and Gilpin (1997) define a metapopulation as a set of local populations within a larger area, where migration from one local population to other habitat patches are possible. These groups of local populations usually occur in suitable, discrete (i.e. separate and discontinuous) habitat patches that are scattered in a landscape. This spatial arrangement allows the populations to interact via the dispersal of individuals across a matrix of unsuitable habitat (Baguette and Schtickzelle, 2003). This ‘ensemble’ of populations results in dynamic interactions between local populations through migration (Marquet, 2002). These interactions are explained and interpreted by metapopulation modelling and theory.

Image 1. The Glanville fritillary butterfly
(Melitaea cinxia)

The aim of this forthcoming presentation will be to introduce metapopulation theory within the context of butterfly metapopulations. Butterflies will be used for the simple reason that their populations are often structured in space in a manner that is broadly consistent with the metapopulation concept. As a result the concept will be more clearly illustrated. This case study approach will furthermore highlight the relevance of the metapopulation concept to wildlife conservation and current environmental issues.

References

Baguette M,Schtickzelle N (2003) Local population dynamics are important to the conservation of metapopulations in highly fragmented landscapes. Journal of applied ecology 40: 404-412.

Hanski IA, Gilpin ME (1997)Metapopulation Biology- Ecology,Genetics, and Evolution. Academic press, San Diego. ISBN 0 12 323446 8

Levins,R (1969) Some demographic and genetic consequences of environmental heterogeneity. Entomological Society of America 15:237-240

Image credit:
http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0040150

GENETICALLY MODIFIED SUICIDE...

2007-03-28T12:27:00.000+02:00

Recently I read an interesting article in the Science and Technology section of the Sunday Times. The article was on genetically modified insects, specifically mosquitoes in order to control disease.

We are all aware of Malaria, but not many of us know how it “works” or what it actually is. Malaria is caused by a parasite (representatives of the genus Plasmodium) that infects the blood and is transmitted to potential hosts through the saliva of the mosquito. According to the article, Malaria is second only to HIV and AIDS when it comes to how many people it kills each year. This is estimated to be around 2.7 million lives annually.

What scientists have done is to genetically engineer a mosquito that is resistant to the parasite itself, which can drastically impact the efficiency of transmission. The proposal is to release these mosquitoes into the wild where malaria is prevalent and where the natural biodiversity exists which includes the genetic component of the wild mosquitoes. In wild mosquitoes, the actual infection with malaria parasites does impact that mosquito’s reproductive potential, however previous studies with genetically modified mosquitoes proved that the wild forms were still fitter. Basically what this means is that even though genetically modified mosquitoes could have been introduced into the wild population earlier, they would have been out-competed by the wild forms which were genetically predisposed to survive better in the environment. Now unfortunately, the scientists seem to have unlocked this barrier and have now produced a genetically modified form that is fitter than the wild form!

So you may ask what this has to do with biodiversity then? Well, since a component of biodiversity is genetic, the introduction of a genetically modified mosquito would eventually cause the local extinction of the wild gene pool. What is more alarming is the apparent lack of forethought in the scientists who have not even mentioned the concern over the effects of co-evolution in parasitism, which can occur at a faster rate in the parasite than in the host. The Red Queen Hypothesis explains that parasites and their hosts are in a continuous battle or evolutionary “arms race” and that each has to keep up to remain within the folds of a dynamic equilibrium. If the mosquitoes that are introduced have a genetically predisposed higher resistance to the actual parasite, it is almost certain that this would fuel a reciprocal response in the parasite’s evolution in order to survive. If this response is to produce more aggressive forms of Plasmodium spp., the result could be even worse for infected people…

Something to think about.

David Vaughan
Senior aquarist, Quarantine
Two Oceans Aquarium
Cape Town, South Africa
+27 21 418 38 23
dvaughan@aquarium.co.za

Article in Sunday Times, 25 March 2007, Science and Technology, page 33.

Image credit:

http://library.thinkquest.org/03oct/00946/pic_used/WNS_vector.jpg

AIR POLLUTION, A LETHAL INJECTION

2007-03-28T11:11:00.000+02:00

Air pollution affects biodiversity on a great scale. The atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere are negatively affected by pollution [1]. Air pollution affects lower life forms more than higher life forms. Plants are generally more affected than animals on land, but not in fresh water. A decline in most species due to pollution is evident except for a minority that increase. I will be focussing on plants and how they are affected by air pollution.

Plants constantly take up atmospheric gases i.e. air everyday to sustain their biological processes. Vegetation growing under optimum conditions is most susceptible to air pollution [2]. As air pollution is for the most part man-made, we are the main source of this phenomenon. Pollution can be derived from two kinds of sources namely, stationary and multiple point sources. Stationary point sources include backyard fires (on a small scale) and the burning of a thousand tons of coal each day in coal-fired electrical power plants (on a large scale). Multiple point sources are usually mobile and include automobiles and other vehicles. The vehicles are the most important source of atmospheric pollutants as they release carbon monoxide. This is followed by industrials sources which release sulphur oxides, steam and electric power plants, space heating and lastly refuse burning. Agricultural chemicals also form part of air pollution [3].

The uptake of pollutants depends on the concentration gradient between the ambient air and the absorptive sites within the leaf. It also depends on the conductance of the stomata. The toxic effect of a pollutant may thus be almost directly related to the functioning of the stomata. Stomata openings are related to the physiological activity of the plant in that they regulate gas exchange; correlation exists between the extent of air pollution effects and the degree of opening of the stomata [2]. Pollutant flow may be restricted by the physical structures of leaves or scavenging by competing chemical reactions. However, as conditions change the ambient dose to which plants are exposed does not necessarily reflect actual cellular exposure. The initial flux of gases to the surface is controlled by boundary layer resistance i.e. the amount of gas able to contact the surface. This includes epidermal characteristics and air movement across the leaf.

At slower wind speeds (less that 2m/s), boundary layer thickness decreases as wind speed increases. Thus more pollutant enters the leaf when air is in motion. Pubescence is also important in that leaf hairs provide major areas of impact. Cuticle wax is also important in limiting uptake even if the cuticle is thin. Stomatal resistance is the most critical. Resistance is determined by stomatal number, size, anatomical characteristics for example the degree to which stomata is sunken and the size of the stomatal apperature [4].

The effect of pollution on the plants is usually visible in one form or the other. Pollution injury can be classed as acute, chronic (chlorotic) or hidden. In acute conditions intercostal leaf areas first take on a water-soaked appearance. The leaves then become dry and bleached to an ivory colour in some species while in others they become brown to brownish red. In the case of chronic injury the leaves become yellow and bleach until most of the chlorophyll and carotenoids are destroyed. This is caused by absorption of gas, insufficient to cause acute injury or absorption of sub lethal amounts over an extended time [3].

As the pollutants are taken up a “damage process” is followed. The epidermis is the first target as air pollution passes through the stomata and acts on this opening. The intercellular spaces are next affected as the pollutants dissolves in the surface water of the leaf cells changing the pH of the cells. In the second step the walls of the mesophyll cells are affected. As the walls contain cellulose, the cell membranes are most likely affected, notably their protein components.

As the pollutants react within the plant it is not necessarily in its original form. The pollutants pass into solution and form free radicals with electric charges. These radicals are more reactive and toxic. In the third step the cell organelles are affected for example, the chloroplast and mitochondria. In the case of the chloroplast the inner thylakoid membrane is the most sensitive. The enzymes of thylakoid and protein components of membranes are most likely to be targets. The precise protein will vary with the pollutant. Enzymes essential to carbon dioxide fixation is especially sensitive. In the mitochondria respiration, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism is adversely affected by air pollution. Changes in the ultra structure of the organelles are the first symptom of injury. The symptoms vary with the pollutant [4]. Some particular processes of sexual reproduction in plants are known to be very sensitive to toxic gases [5]. This therefore causes long-term changes to population ecology.

From the above information it is obvious to see that air pollution has severe adverse effects on the ultra structure and biological processes of plants. As plants form the bases of all food chains and also supplies us with oxygen, we should value and treasure them. Many of our forest ecosystems will be destroyed or at least be disturbed, resulting in considerable changes in plant communities and losses of plant resources and ecosystems. We should therefore increase our awareness of pollution in general and see what we are able to do to decrease pollution levels.

Air pollution also changes the distribution of many plants species and plant communities. It reduces biodiversity and does not respect boundaries set by conservation areas and nature reserves. Air pollution therefore contributes to the decline of biodiversity on a global scale. This global impact is also evident with climatic changes i.e. increase in temperature caused by gases polluting the atmosphere [6].

Something needs to be done to reduce pollution at the source. This can be done by reducing energy demands, conserving energy, switching of fuel and having technical pollution controls. The sixth major extinction is being triggered by humans’ inconsideration for our planet. Deforestation and fossil-fuel combustion have caused an increase in carbon dioxide by 30% in the past three centuries. We have already caused the extinction of 5-20% of the species in many groups of organisms. How much more disaster are we going to cause and what will it take to bring about a reformation? Air pollution is only one factor that influences biodiversity but controlling it can make the world of difference.

References:

[1] McNeely, J.A., Gadgil, M., Lévêque, C., Padoch, C. & Redford, K. (1995). Human influences on biodiversity. In: Global biodiversity assessment, V.H. Heywood (ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 711—821. 0-521-56481-6 ISBN

[2] Stern, A.C., Wohlers, H.C., Boubel, R.W., Lowry, W.P. (1973). Fundamentals of Air Pollution. Academic Press, New York.

[3] Kozlowski, T.T., Mudd, J.B. (1975). Responses of Plants to Air Pollution. Academic Press Inc., New York.

[4] Anderson, F.K., Threshow, M. (1991). Plant stress from Air Pollution. John Wiley and sons, New York.

[5] Scholz, F., Gregorious, H.R., Rudin, D. (1987). Genetic Effects of Air Pollution in Forest Tree Populations. Springer-Verlag, New York.

[6] Leemans, R. (1996) Biodiversity and global change. In: Biodiversity, a biology of numbers and difference, K.J. Gaston (ed.), Blackwell Science, Oxford, pp. 367—387. 0-86542-804-2 ISBN

[7]http://www.equilibriumconsultants.com/publications/docs/airpollutionandbiodi4f9.pdf

THE DYNAMIC FUNCTIONING OF MANGROVES

2007-03-28T09:09:00.000+02:00

Mangrove ecosystems are essentially tropical to subtropical ecosystems, structurally dominated by trees and shrubs, some herbaceous plants and vines with associated biota. Mangroves predominantly occur along coastal areas and inhabit the fringes of estuaries (Nybakken 2005). Mangroves, seagrasses and coral reef tropical ecosystems are discrete ecosystems frequently occurring in close proximity to one another and interact with one another through the exchange of energy in the form of dissolved organic matter and faunal migration (Kitheka 1997).

Factors needed for the development of mangroves

Mangroves occur on soft, muddy, dark substrata that are frequently waterlogged, creating an anoxic environment due to reduced interstitial circulation and high bacterial activity (Nybakken 2005). These ecosystems occur in coastal areas or estuaries which are well protected from wave action. The latter explain why mangroves develop most extensively in regions behind coral reefs (Hogarth 1999). Reduced wave action allows for the settling out of fine silts and sediments which associated organic matter suspended in river inflows. In addition reduced wave action is required for the settling and establishment of new seedlings (Nybakken 2005). Mangroves are essentially facultative halophytes and have unique adaptations to cope with high salinities. Mangroves are terrestrial flowering plants that have reinvaded salt water and hence cannot survive in water of too high salinity. Being and estuarine ecosystem, mangroves experience continuous fluctuations in salinity with tidal action (Hogarth 1999). The distribution of mangrove forests is dictated by the relative sea surface temperature. They are mainly distributed within the winter position of the 20 °C isotherm (Nybakken 2005). However, these ecosystems may occur further south or north where currents bring warm water to the east coast of continents. Due to their sensitivity to freezing, mangroves do not extend into temperate habitats (Nybakken 2005). Mangroves require tidal action for their survival as the latter inundates roots with oxygenated salt water and replenishes nutrients. Tidal action prevents soil salinities from reaching lethal levels especially in areas with high rates of evapotranspiration (Nybakken 2005). The duration of tidal flooding dictates the degree of sedimentation in mangrove ecosystems. However, if root systems (aerial roots) are submerged for too long, mangroves can literally downed due to a lack of oxygen (Hogarth 1999).
Mangroves have adaptations that allows then to outcompete their terrestrial counterparts.

Mangroves are facultative halophytes, inhabiting stressful anoxic, saline environments because of their inability to compete with terrestrial freshwater angiosperms (Nybakken 2005). These ecosystems thrive in these seemingly stressful environments due to the acquisition of physiological, morphological and reproductive adaptations that allow them to cope with anoxia and osmotic problems.Many species of mangrove plants such as Bruguiera sp actively excrete salt via the roots, whereas other accumulate salt in older leaves which they later shed (for example Xylocarpus sp) (Hogarth 1999). Most mangroves have succulent sclerophylous leaves containing specialized water storing tissue. Alternatively as seen in Avicennia sp and Sonneratia sp, the leaves can contain salt exuding glands on the ventral and dorsal surfaces (Hogarth 1999). To reduce the osmotic gradients for the outward diffusion of water from the plant tissue, some mangrove species store amino acids in their internal fluid (Nybakken 2005). Rhizophora is less successful in preventing salt uptake, and as a consequence the internal salt concentrations may reach as high as 3 ‰, more than 100 times that of terrestrial plants (Branch and Branch 1981). Mangroves have a range of xeromorphic features in order to cope with the osmotic loss of water. These features include a thick leaf epidermal tissue layer, covered by a waxy cuticle. The leaves often contain fine hairs on the ventral surfaces and stomata are sunken (Hogarth 1999).
As adaptations to anoxic conditions most mangrove plants are shallow rooted with horizontal cable roots extending just below the mud surface. In Avicennea marina, vertical above ground pencil roots extend from the cable roots (Branch and Branch 1981). These pencil roots or pneumatophores contain lenticels which function in aeration of the roots (Nybakken 2005). Similarly Bruguera gymnorrhiza and Xylocarpus sp have knee roots and blade roots respectively, that branch from its cable roots and functions in gas exchange (Branch and Branch 1981). Rhizophora sp lacks cable roots but are shallowly anchored by a system of prop roots. In addition stem tendrils which extend from the braches or stem functions in gas exchange (Nybakken 2005). Sonneratia alba has above ground pneumatophores similar to that of Avicennia sp, however these are not pencil-like but can be more than 10 cm in diameter and are associated with fungal hyphae aiding in aeration and nutrient acquisition (Hogarth 1999). In most mangroves the section of the pneumatophores (or above ground root) penetrating the soil is often adapted with specialized aerenchyma tissue. Aerenchyma has a regular arrangement of air spaces in its interior called lacunae lending both floatation and aeration throughout the plant (Hogarth 1999).

Mangroves are able to optimize the dispersal and survival of their seedlings by being viviparous. In this way the seed germinates and develops into a seedling while still attached to the parent plant. The seedling is only released once sufficient roots have developed. Once released into the water column, the seedling floats with prevailing currents to a new location where it is able to settle and set roots in shallow waters (Nybakken 2005).

Mangroves and Coral Reefs are never found in the immediate vicinity of one another

Mangroves and coral reefs are both tropical ecosystems that are frequently found in close proximity to one another and are interconnected via the exchange of energy in the form of organic matter and animal migration during spawning and feeding (Kitheka 1997). However, these two discrete ecosystems are never found in the immediate vicinity of one another due to the fact that they thrive in contrasting physical environments.
The interaction between mangroves and coral reefs are not clear cut. Coral reefs stabilize the seascape by dissipating wave action and over geological time create areas protected from wave action, favouring the development of mangroves, while mangroves (and seagrasses ) act as chemical and physical buffers to the influence of land runoff on coral reef ecosystems (Birkeland 1997). Mangroves have the capacity to filter land runoff, removing terrestrial particulate and dissolved organic matter, trap and bind sediment, essentially promoting downstream coral reef growth. However, sporadic events such as Hurricane Andrew that hit the Florida Peninsula in August 1992, is a reminder of why these two ecosystems occur some distance from each other (Hogarth 1999). Heavy precipitation and wave action flushed large quantities of accumulated material from mangrove and seagrass sinks into downstream coral reef ecosystems (Birkeland 1997). Coral reefs are extremely vulnerable to sedimentation, eutrophication in the form of dissolved organic matter and fluctuations in salinity. Fine sediments and silts cause clogging of the mouth parts of coral polyps and hence prevent respiration subsequently leading to smothering of these polyps. The inflow of fine silts increases the turbidity of reef water, essentially decreasing the amount of light reaching corals and so doing decreasing the photosynthetic ability of obligate mutualistic zooxanthallae (Birkeland 1997).

Associated with mangrove sediment and mud is large amounts of dissolved organic matter. Coral reef ecosystems thrive in oligotrophic waters (Koop et al. 2001). Eutrophication increases the growth of opportunistic fleshy macro algae which outcompete corals for space and prevent coral larval settlement (McCook 1999). Increased levels of dissolved organic matter also lead to sporadic algal bloom events which further increases the turbidity of the reef water. Increased levels of dissolved nitrogen and phosphorous tends to disrupt the mutualistic relationship between zooxanthallae and coral polyps and as a result reduce coral calcification (Ferrier-Pages et al. 2000). Coral reefs are stenohaline and are not able to tolerate the fluctuation in salinity which is brought about when brackish mangrove derived water enter highly saline coral reef water.

The success of mangrove ecosystems is attributable to their ability to exclude stronger terrestrial competitors from the seemingly stressful habitats in which they occur. Mangroves have unique physiological, morphological and reproductive adaptations which allow them to thrive in conditions in which their terrestrial counterparts would be unable to. Mangroves interact with other tropical coastal ecosystems (seagrasses and coral reefs) via the exchange of dissolved organic matter and provide a spawning ground for many reef fish and invertebrates. Due to the catastrophic effect that disturbed mangroves can have on coral reefs, these two ecosystems are never found in the immediate vicinity of one another.

References

Birkeland C (1997) Life and death of Coral Reefs. Chapman & Hall, New York, USA. ISBN 0412035413, pp 536

Branch G, Branch M (1981) The living shores of Southern Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape Town. ISBN 0869771159, pp 272

Ferrier-Pages C, Gattuso J, Dallot S, Jaubert J (2000) Effect of nutrient enrichment on growth and photosynthesis of the zooxanthallate coral Stylophora pistillata. Coral Reefs 19: 103-113

Hogarth P (1999) The Biology of Mangroves. Oxford University Press, New York. ISBN 0198502230, pp 228

OPTION TO REPLACE TESTS WITH A WRITTEN EXAM

2007-03-27T07:17:00.000+02:00

If any of you are unhappy about the interactive tests, I am prepared to set a "normal" exam on the same material (six Powerpoints) which we could write on Thursday 5 April 2007. If you are interested in this option you will not have to do any further interactive tests, but in order for me to do the paper work (e.g. get the internal and external examiners to check the paper out) you will need to post a reply to this blog by Thursday 12am latest. The exam will be essay-based so it will not test fine detail but broader knowledge and I will set it. If you elect this option it will replace your marks obtained from the interactive tests whether it is higher or lower. The purpose of the tests are to ensure learning compliance. This offer is made to each of the class members on an individual basis.

DESCRIPTION OF Breviceps Poweri

2007-03-26T16:07:00.000+02:00

Breviceps poweri Parker,1934 (Power's rain frog)

Female length 50 mm.
Lower surface texture unknown.
Lower surface colour unknown.
Tympanum not visible.
Inner toes unknown.
Outer toes unknown.
Endemism not endemic to South Africa.
Advertisement call whistle.
Call position unknown.
Call frequency 1.5 kHz.
Eye size unknown.
Dorsum colour brown/black.
Dorsum pattern unknown.

date of photo February,2006
location Mughese Forest Reserve (Misuku hills,Malawi)
photographer Vincenzo Mercurio

available at:
http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/browse_imgs/amphibian_sci_8.html
reference:Channing, A (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Pp 209-228 ISBN 1 919825 63 0

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES WITHIN THE GENUS BREVICEPS(8)

2007-03-26T15:58:00.000+02:00

Breviceps adspersus Peters,1882 (Common rain frog)

Female length 60 mm.
Lower surface texture smooth.
Lower surface colour light.
Tympanum not visible.
Inner toes as long as wide.
Outer toes as long as wide.
Endemism not endemic to South Africa.
Advertisement call unknown.
Call position underground.
Call frequency 2 kHz.
Eye size unknown.
Dorsum colour unknown.
Dorsum pattern patches/flecks.

date of photo October 19,1995
latitude 32.35290
longitude 29.56160
location Cape Province,Hogsback (SA)
habitat coastal forest
photographer Robert C. Drewes

available at:
http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/browse_imgs/amphibian_sci_8.html

reference:
Channing, A (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Pp 209-228 ISBN 1 919825 63 0

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES WITHIN THE GENUS BREVICEPS(7)

2007-03-26T15:50:00.000+02:00

Breviceps namaquensis Power,1926 (Namaqua rain frog)

Female length 45 mm.
Lower surface texture smooth.
Lower surface colour light.
Tympanum unknown.
Inner toes as long as wide.
Outer toes unknown.
Endemism endemic to South Africa.
Advertisement call whistle.
Call position unknown.
Call frequency 1.3–1.5 kHz.
Eye size large.
Dorsum colour brown/black.
Dorsum pattern unknown.

available from:
http://www.houthoop.co.za/Photo_Reptiles.shtml
reference: Channing, A (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Pp 209-228 ISBN 1 919825 63 0

NATURE'S INVESTMENTS INTO PAST BIODIVERSITY

2007-03-26T15:33:00.000+02:00

Biodiversity can be defined as the number and variability of species, genes and communities, temporally and spatially (Sepkoski 1997). Understanding past biodiversity is important if one wants to understand the evolutionary processes that generated present biodiversity. However, our understanding of biodiversity is strongly influenced by factors such as: completeness of the fossil record, taxonomic accuracy, precision of dating fossils and quality of preservation of these fossils (Sepkoski 1997). In the present essay, past biodiversity and the methods used to reconstruct past biodiversity will be discussed.

Reconstructing the ecological history of the Calamiteans

Wang et al (2006) used fossils and comparative anatomy and morphology to reconstruct various aspects of extinct Calamiteans (a group of gymnosperms). Today, only one extant genus, namely Equisetum spp is known. A permineralized fossil stem of Arthropitys yunnanensis was found in a mine spoil at Housuo Coal Mine, eastern Yunnan Province, southwestern China, preserved in volcaniclastic tuffs. The stem dated back to the upper Permian. The stem was cut into a longitudinal and horizontal section using a rock saw. Subsequently exposed surfaced were prepared by the acetate peel technique using HCl (hydrochloric acid) to notch the carbonate matrix. The fossil stem showed morphological and anatomical features that have subsequently been lost in modern species. From the study they found that A. yunnanensis had a thick secondary xylem with growth rings, which suggests that the species experienced frequent fluctuations in environmental stresses, such as water availability during drought. The lignified secondary xylem of the stem suggested that it had a semi-self supporting habit. Leaf traces arranged in two whorls were found in the cortex. This indicated that A. yunnanensis had oblique to vertical leaves, which is in contrast with the generalization that members of the genus Arthropitys all had horizontal leaves. The study neatly showed how Calamiteans have changed over time and in addition gave some idea of what the general habit during the Upper Permian.

Using the fossil record to reconstruct the history of Ichthyosaurus

In a paper by Martill (1996), the morphology, anatomy and habit of the Ichthyosaurs; extinct marine tetrapods are described based on fossil evidence, dentition and comparative anatomy. These reptilian, but presumably warm-blooded tetrapods were exclusively marine. Hence, the fossil record shows numerous well preserved specimens. These animals are usually preserved in open marine sedimentary rocks, such as clays and shale which is slightly enriched with organic carbon. These organisms first appear in the fossil record in the lower Triassic, at which stage it resembled the crocodilians. Early Jurassic specimens show a change in body form, and resembled primitive dolphins. The fossil record shows temporal changes in dentition amoungst these organisms, which also suggest changes in feeding habits. Specimens have been found in Posidonia Shale of Southern Germany (around the Late Jurassic), that showed soft tissue outlines, stomach contents and even the embryo in the body cavity. From the soft tissue, it was observed that the width and length of the limbs of Early and Late Jurassic forms were greatly enhanced. The latter suggests that these forms had a rapid means of locomotion. When stomach contents were examined, hooklets of belemnites were found, and rarely fish remains (fish remains were only found in juvenile guts). The belemnites were bottom dwelling mollusks and this suggests that the Ichthyosaurs fed in deeper water. In support of the latter idea, specimens such as Ophthalmosaurus of the Early Jurassic had enormous eyes which are thought to have enhanced vision during feeding in deeper dark water. It is thought that Ichthyosaurs underwent a transition from surface piscivory to deeper water molluscivory during its life cycle. Like other oceanic sea breather, the bone of Ichthyosaurs was spongy as a way of reducing its body density. From fossil evidence of these animals, we can witness changes in body forms over evolutionary time as well as reconstruct the way in which they lived.

Figure 1: Middle Triassic-Late Cretaceous fossil Ichthyosuarus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Fishchsaurier-fg01.jpg

Using gall in Psaronius fronds to reconstruct the ecological history of Holometabola

Labandeira and Philips (1996) tried to reconstruct the ecological history of Holometabola from fossil Psaronius tree-fern fronds found from the Upper Pennsylvanian Mattoon Formation of Illinois Basin. The occurrence of insect herbivory during the Late Carboniferous has been questioned, and in the study done by Labandeira and Philips (1996) they suggest that modern insect herbivore types were essentially established in Late Pennsylvanian coal swamp forests. Fossil galls were found in the fronds of Psaronius, and were observed as abnormally-looking parenchyma tissue surrounded by nutritive tissue. The accumulation of this nutritive tissue is the host plants response to endophagous herbivory. The central lumen of the gall was filled with frass (including undigested ground tissue and fecal pellets). The presence of these large, barrel-shaped, solid fecal pellets with fractured ends was evidence that the endophague was a Holometabolan larva. They further suggest that the Holometabolan larva displayed host and tissue specificity (Labandeira and Phillips 1996).

Figure 2: a) Psaronius tree fern, 7 m tall and host of the earliest known plant gall b) Fronds of fossil Psaronius containing gall ca= undigested frass, co=coprolite, lu=gall lumen, nt=nutritive tissue, pa=unmodified parenchyma, vt= vascular tissue.
Labandeira and Philips (1996)

Fossils in Amber

Amber is a form of fossilized tree resin, which has been known to trap various small invertebrates such as insects, spiders and other terrestrial arthropods. Amber fossils provide detailed morphological comparisons with extant relatives of extinct taxa. Arthropods in Amber are known to provide information on past biogeographical distributions and serves as a good indicator of past climatic regimes. Syninclusions (where more than one specimen is entrapped in the resin) provide valuable information on the interaction between organisms (for example: predation, maternal care, mating, parasitism etc.). Further more, the rapid mode of fixation and dehydration during amber formation, may be sufficient to preserve DNA. The latter idea has been questioned, but is more likely than finding DNA in any other fossil type (Penny 2006).

Figure 3: Winged ants in Dominican amber. Formed in a tropical climate, typically 16 million years old. Penny (1996)

Invertebrates are usually poorly represented in the fossil record. However, Sutton et al (2001), show yet another way in which soft-bodied invertebrates can be preserved over geological time. Soft bodied organisms that dominate the Silurian Herefordshire fauna of England were fossilized as three dimensional calcitic fossils within spherical to sub-elliptic calcareous nodules. Here, serial grinding and digital photographic techniques were used to capture three- dimensional morphological information. Serial grinding involves the sequential removal of material via abrasion, from a single planar surface, which is subsequently photographed at each stage (Sutton et al. 2001).

Fossils do not only provide knowledge on past biodiversity, but also on the environments in which extinct taxa lived. Various techniques exist on how to effectively process fossils to yield the highest possible resolution. However the techniques used depend on the fossilized organism and the substrate.

References

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Fischsaurier_fg01.jpg

Labandeira C, Phillips T (1996) A Carboniferous insect gall: Insight into early ecologic history of the Holometabola. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America 93: 8470-8474

Martill D (1996) Fossils explained 17: Ichthyosaurs. Geology Today 194-196

Penny D (2006) Fossils in Amber: Unlocking the secrets of the past. Biologist 53(5): 247-251

Sepkoski J (1997) Biodiversity: Past, Present, and Future. Journal of Paleontology 71 (4) 533-539

Sutton M, Biggs D, Siveter D 1, Siveter D 2 (2001) Methodologies for the Visualization and Reconstruction of three-dimensional fossils from the Silurian Herefordshire Lagerstatte. Palaeontologia Electronica 4 (1): 1-17

Wang S, Hilton J, Galtier J, Tian B (2006) A large anatomically preserved calamitean stem from the Upper Permian of southwest China and its implications for calamitean development and functional anatomy. Plant Systematics and Evolution 261: 229-244

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES WITHIN THE GENUS BREVICEPS(7)

2007-03-26T14:54:00.000+02:00

Breviceps montanus Power,1926 (Mountain rain frog)

Female length 52 mm.
Lower surface texture rough/granular.
Lower surface colour dark.
Tympanum not visible.
Inner toes as long as wide.
Outer toes as long as wide.
Endemism unknown.
Advertisement call whistle.
Call position unknown.
Call frequency 2.2 kHz.
Eye size unknown.
Dorsum colour unknown.
Dorsum pattern vertebral stripe.

date of photo June,1999
photo location Stellenbosch,Cape Province (SA)
photographer Robert C. Drewes

available at:
http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/browse_imgs/amphibian_sci_8.html
reference:
Channing, A (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Pp 209-228 ISBN 1 919825 63 0

FYNBOS: HERITAGE AT OUR FEET

2007-03-26T14:39:00.000+02:00

Cape Floral Kingdom

The Cape Floral Kingdom (CFK) is one of six globally recognized plant kingdoms and occurs in South Africa in the Western Cape Province extending eastwards into the Eastern Cape Province [16]. The Cape Floral Kingdom is the smallest of all six kingdoms and is highly unique as it is the only one fully contained within a single country and is characterized by a high diversity, 8700 plant species, and high endemism, 68% of it’s plant species are confined to this kingdom 90 000km2 large [5]. The CFK consists of the five biomes namely: fynbos, renosterveld, succulent karoo, sub-tropical thicket and afromontane forest [4]. Fynbos is the dominant vegetation of the CFK as 80 percent of the CFK consists of fynbos [8].

Fynbos is evergreen, sclerophyllous shrubland [11] that occurs on nutrient poor soil of the Cape Fold Belt Mountains. It consists of four characteristic growth forms namely proteoids (tall protea shrubs with large leaves), ericoids (heath-like shrub), restiods (reed-like plants) and geophytes (bulbous plants) [4]. The presence of restoid is a distinguishing feature of fynbos as it is always present whereas proteoid and ericoids may be rare and geophytes only appear in winter [8].

Fynbos Biome

There are key biotic and a biotic factors that determine the fynbos distribution, these factors include: summer drought and winter rainfall (mediterranean type climate), low soil nutrients and recurring fire and wind, however, summer drought is a variable component over the South African landscape as it is much more intense in the west than in the east [8]. Biomes are climatically defined but the fynbos biome is not, as the their presence is determined by the absence of nutrients in soils on which they occur [12]. Quartzites and sandstones yield infertile soils whereas the softer shales are more fertile [8]. Fire is a “keystone factor in the long term survival of fynbos” as it plays a major role in its cycle of “destruction, regeneration, maturation and destruction again” [8]. Fire has placed a selective pressure over fynbos and in response small animals and plants have evolved in order to survive. It is not just the physical characteristics of the fire that has such a major influence on fynbos but the complex fire regime i.e. the time lapse between fires, the season in which it burns and the intensity and area it covers [8].

The Origin of Fynbos

Approximately 65 million years ago the present fynbos region was covered with tropical vegetation, ancestral fynbos forms included representatives from the: Proteaceae, Ericaceae and Restionaceae families and were restricted to mountainous areas [8]. Mountains were built of erosion- resistant sandstone that resulted in nutrient poor soils that could have supported heath land-like vegetation [10]. Some CFR palaeoendemics from this era seem to have survived through shelters provided by mountain peaks capturing moisture [14].

About 35 million years ago the climate transformed into a drier and colder type, allowing a form of woodland to occur, this dry period was brought to an end again by the return of a warm moist-tropical period [8]. Then approximately 20 million years ago one of the most historical events in the origin of fynbos occurred, the development of the cold cicum-Antarctic current [8].

This resulted in the complete glaciations of Antarctica approximately 10 million years ago and the formation of the cold Benguela current that ran along the South-Western coast of Africa (Figure 1) [10]. These conditions caused the Mediterranean climatic system typical of the fynbos region as summer-rainfall got blocked off leaving only winter rain [10]. This climatic system was not in favour to the present tropical flora that inevitably became extinct leaving open habitats that the mountainous heath vegetation then occupied [10]. Modern species then radiated from these ancestral lineages, the aridification of the region together with the increase in the fire occurrence played pivotal roles in fynbos diversification [8].

Figure 1:A timeline showing changes in the species diversity and the proportion of area occupied by modern fynbos species [10].

Evolution of Fynbos

This level of endemism observed amongst fynbos vegetation is typically found on islands and is due to the particular geology and geomorphologic evolution of this area: sandy, nutrient poor, acid soils from sandstone and quartzite of the Table Mountain and Wittenberg Groups form the mountains of the Cape Folded Belt tend to be rich in endemism by promotion of speciation [14]. The rugged mountains provided multiple combinations of aspect, substrate and altitude and therefore a vast array of niches for plants to occupy therefore promoting species diversification through niche specialization. Another observation is that the particular location and orientation of the Cape Mountains at the southern tip of Africa favoured speciation as it cut off gene flow from surrounding areas therefore maintaining a “distinct floristic identity” [14].

Adaptations of Fynbos

One important adaptation of fynbos is the high incidence of schlerophylly [12], schlerophyllous plants are hard as they contain ligin that allows plants to resist dry conditions by preventing wilting. Lignin also allows these plants to grow in phosphorus deficient soils (a major nutrient nutrients scarce in the soils) even when phosphorous is lacking for substantial cell growth. In fire-prone ecosystems many plants possess traits that increase their flammability, scherophylly aids in flammability of the vegetation, essential to fynbos as fire is an integral ecosystem process [13].

As mentioned earlier, fire is a major ecological and selective agent in this vegetation as a correct fire regime plays an integral part in fynbos plants and their future generations [7]. Fynbos have adapted to fire by becoming reseeders, which complete their life cycle within a time period and produce seeds (normally fire-protected), or as resprouters [7].

Many fynbos species have established specialized root systems in order to adapt to poor nutrient soil status; root systems include: proteoid roots and versicular arbuscular mycorrhizal root systems [3]. Adaptations of roots have been observed in fynbos plant species, namely mycorrhizal infected and proteoid (cluster) roots. These nutrient aquiring adaptations increase species diversity in the Fynbos biome by promoting co-existence of mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal families [1].

Mycorrhiza is a form of mutualism between roots and soil fungi and two forms exits namely: ectomycorrhizde and endomycorhizzae, the hypae of endomycprrhizae develop extensively within the cortical cells of host roots; vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM) is a form of endomycorhizzae and 62% of flora found with the CFK form VAM [1]. Endomycorrhizas have been found in abundance in certain fynbos plants namely in Ericaceae species [8]. Members of the Rosidae family also possess VAM [3].

Proteaceae and Restionaceae are perennial families that dominate in older fynbos vegetation and contribute a large biomass that does not form mycorrhizal roots but develop proteoid roots (Figure 2) [2]. Most members of the Proteacea family are able to survive and flourish on substrates, typical to that of fynbos, indicating proteoid roots are also a highly effective mechanism for metabolic absorption [15].

Figure 2:A proteoid root formation on a protea plant, also named cluster roots for its obvious appearance [6].

Numerous pollination adaptations have also been observed in the fynbos area but special mention has to made about the Ericaceae family that have the most astonishing display of floral attractions [8]. Ericas are highly adapted to their specific pollinators and attractions come in the form of many visual and olfactory cues.

Adaptations to two ecological drivers namely: soils with a low nutrient status and fire are clearly evident in the Fynbos biome. Fynbos’ extremely high diversity and endemism emphasises its success. Root, fire and pollination adapatations are just a few general mechanisms that have allowed Fynbos to become so successful in such a harsh environment.

References:
1. Allsopp N and Stock WD (1993) Mycorrhizal status of plants growing in the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. Bothalia 23(1): 91-104

2. Allsopp N and Stock WD (1994) VA mycorrhizal infection in relation to edaphic characteristics and disturbances regime in three lowland plant communities in the South-Western Cape, South Africa. Journal of Ecology 82:271-279

3. Allsopp N and Stock WD (1995) Relationship between seed reserves, seedling growth and mycorrhizal responses in 14 related shrubs (Rosidae) from a low nutrient environment. Functional Ecology 9:248-254

4. Anon. Cape Floral Kingdom [Internet]. [Cited 2007 Mar 23] Avaliable from:
http://www.oceansafrica.com/floralkingdom.htm

5. Anon. Fynbos Biome [Internet]. [Cited 2007 Mar 23] Avaliable from:
http://www.plantzafrica.com/vegetation/fynbos.htm

6. Anon. Phytogen [Internet]. [Cited 2007 Mar 23] Available from: http://www.plantsci.org.au/Phytogen/PhytApr01.html

7. Barraclough TG (2006) What can phylogenetics tell us about speciation in the cape flora?.Diversity and Distributions 12:21-26

8. Cowling RM and Richardson D (1995) Fynbos:South Africa’s Unique Floral Kingdom.Fernwood Press, Vlaeberg ,pp 21-40;46-49. ISBN 1-874950-10-5

9. HigginsKB,Lamb AJ and Wilgen (1987) Root systems of selected plant species in mesic mountain fynbos in the jonkershoek valley, south-western cape province. South African Journal of Botany 52(3): 249-257

10. Linder HP and Hardy CR (2004) Evolution of the species-rich cape flora. The Royal Society 359:1623-1632

11. Moll EJ, Jarman (1984) Classification of the Term Fynbos. South African Journal of Sicence 80:351-352

12. Moll EJ, Jarman (1984) Is Fynbos a Heathland. South African Journal of Sicence 80:352-354

13. Schwilk DW and Kerr B (2002) Genetic niche-hiking:an alternative explanation for the evolution of flammability.OIKOS 99:431-442

14. van Wyk A and Smith GF (2001) Regions of Floristic Endemism in Southern Africa: A review with emphasis on Succulents. Umdaus Press, Hatfield, South Africa, pp23-25. ISBN 1-919766-20-0

15. Vorster PW and Jooste JH (1986) Potassium and phosphate absorption by exised ordinary abd proteoid roots of the Proteaceae. South African Journal of Botanty 52(4): 277-282

16. Wikipedia Contributors. Cape Floristic Region [Internet]. [Cited 2007 Mar 13] Available from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_floristic_region

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES WITHIN THE GENUS BREVICEPS(6)

2007-03-26T14:34:00.000+02:00

Breviceps rosei Power,1926 (Rose's rainfrog)

Female length 36 mm.
Lower surface texture smooth.
Lower surface colour light.
Tympanum not visible.
Inner toes as long as wide.
Outer toes as long as wide.
Endemism endemic to South Africa.
Advertisement call whistle.
Call position above ground.
Call frequency 2.1 kHz.
Eye size unknown.
Dorsum colour brown/black.
Dorsum pattern vertebral stripe.

photographer Alan Channing

available at:
http://www.botany.uwc.ac.za/envfacts/fynbos/fynbos_frogs.htm

Reference: Channing, A (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Pp 209-228 ISBN 1 919825 63 0

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES WITHIN THE GENUS BREVICEPS(5)

2007-03-26T14:19:00.000+02:00

Breviceps gibbosus (Giant rain frog)

Female length 60 mm.
Lower surface texture rough/granular.
Lower surface colour light.
Tympanum not visible.
Inner toes as long as wide.
Outer toes unknown.
Endemism endemic to South Africa.
Advertisement call chirp.
Call position underground.
Call frequency 1.1 kHz.
Eye size unknown.
Dorsum colour brown/black.
Dorsum pattern patches/flecks.

date of photo August 10,2002
location Tamboerskloof,Cape Town,Western Province (SA)
camera Olympus OM2N,Zuiko 135mm Macro,-Velvia-
photographer Wolfgang Ochojski
available at:
http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/browse_imgs/amphibian_sci_8.html

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES WITHIN THE GENUS BREVICEPS(4)

2007-03-26T13:58:00.000+02:00

Breviceps fuscus (Black rain frog)

Female length 51 mm.
Lower surface texture smooth.
Lower surface colour dark.
Tympanum not visible.
Inner toes longer than wide.
Outer toes longer than wide.
Endemism endemic to South Africa.
Advertisement call chirp.
Call position above ground.
Call frequency 1.8 kHz.
Eye size small.
Dorsum colour brown/black.
Dorsum pattern no markings.

date of photo 1998
location Big Tree Reserve (SA)
photographer Miguel Vences
available at
http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/browse_imgs/amphibian_sci_8.html

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES WITHIN THE GENUS BREVICEPS(3)

2007-03-26T13:46:00.000+02:00

Breviceps mossambicus (Mozambique rain frog)

Female length 52 mm.
Lower surface texture unknown.
Lower surface colour unknown.
Tympanum unknown.
Inner toes unknown.
Outer toes unknown.
Endemism not endemic to South Africa.
Advertisement call chirp.
Call position ground level.
Call frequency 2.6 kHz.
Eye size unknown.
Dorsum colour unknown.
Dorsum pattern patches/flecks.

Date of photo 1998
location Kwambonambi (SA)
photographer Miguel Vences
available at
http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/browse_imgs/amphibian_sci_8.html

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES WITHIN THE GENUS BREVICEPS(2)

2007-03-26T13:25:00.000+02:00

Breviceps macrops (Desert rain frog)

Female length 50 mm.
Lower surface texture smooth.
Lower surface colour light.
Tympanum not visible.
Inner toes unknown.
Outer toes unknown.
Endemism not endemic to South Africa.
Advertisement call whistle.
Call position unknown.
Call frequency 1.3 kHz.
Eye size large.
Dorsum colour pale/white.
Dorsum pattern unknown.

date of photo November 19,1994
latitude 29.16930
longitude 16.52800
location ca. 1km near McDougall's
bay campsite (SA)
habitat beach dunes
photographer Robert C. Drewes
available at
http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/browse_imgs/amphibian_sci_8.html

A DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES WITHIN THE GENUS BREVICEPS

2007-03-26T13:06:00.000+02:00

Breviceps acutirostris (Strawberry Rain Frog)

Female length 40 mm.
Lower surface texture rough/granular.
Lower surface colour unknown.
Tympanum not visible.
Inner toes longer than wide.
Outer toes longer than wide.
Endemism endemic to South Africa.
Advertisement call whistle.
Call position ground level.
Call frequency 1.9 kHz.
Eye size unknown.
Dorsum colour unknown.
Dorsum pattern unknown.

date of photo July 4,2005
location Rochelle Nature Reserve near Franschhoek (SA)
camera Nikon coolpix 990
photographer Arie van der Meijden
available at

http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/browse_imgs/amphibian_sci_8.html

FOSSILS:OUR BRIDGE TO THE PAST

2007-03-26T12:36:00.000+02:00

Biodiversity changes not only spatially, but also temporally [7]. This change can be measured, on numerous levels, by the number and variability of: genes, species and ecosystems [7]. Paleontological data is therefore essential for us to comprehend how biodiversity, through evolutionary processes, was generated and changed temporally [7]. Fossil records remain the integral key to reconstructing past biodiversity and are essential to gaining a historical viewpoint of the current “biodiversity crisis” i.e. sixth extinction [8] conservationists are becoming increasingly aware of.
Evolution is the driving force behind biodiversity, but this process occurs over millions of years and many taxa have become extinct over time. Fossil records are essential in reconstruction of biodiversity because not only do they allow paleontologists to study extinct taxa but also these taxa’s morphological and anatomical adaptations that developed through evolution but is now lost in extant forms of those taxa [10].

One of the most detailed fossil records is that of the vertebrate fossil group: Ichthyosaurs [6]. Fossil records indicate that ichthyosaurs originated during the upper part of the Lower Triassic but by the end of the Triassic had become highly diverse and enjoyed a global distribution [6] indicating the success of this group of vertebrates. The fossil record of ichthyosaurs emphasize the importance of this paleontological data as changes in morphological features were observed in specimens (during the early Jurassic) indicating the evolution of these animals to a more efficient aquatic body shape i.e. rear limbs became shorter, physically more powerful shoulder girdle and the caudal section of the vertebral column bent downwards [6]. Some amazing fossil specimens have the soft-tissue outline preserved (Figure 1); more detail and therefore more information could be derived from these records. A dorsal fin, a lunate caudal fin (tail) and forelimbs extending from their skeleton were observed in these unique specimens. Paleontologists could therefore derive that ichthyosaurs from this era used these adaptations to move fast within their aquatic environments, for example the lunate tail would be used for thrusting the animal foreward and the elongated forelimbs would be used for, “underwater flight”[6]. Even more of an exciting discovery was that some, very rare, ichthyosaurs’ fossil specimens contained preserved integument and could actually be examined to provide further evidence of ichthyosaur’s efficiency i.e. less drag effect in locomotion in their aquatic environments [5]. Fossil records are not only important in understanding how extinct taxa lived but also how they perished, by the middle and late Jurassic a major decrease in ichthyosaur’s diversity was observed and by studying other faunal and floral fossil records deductions can be made as to why this species eventually became extinct.

Figure 1: An Ichthyosaur fossil specimen [5].

New discoveries of fossils are increasingly important as each new discovery leads to a better understanding of biodiversity and a more accurate timeline of how diversity evolved [11]. Fossils are also used to reconstruct past environments and therefore past ecosystems. Comparing fossils of pollen, seeds and fruit with linked fauna, all of which characterize various energy levels within an ecosystem, allow the ecosystems where mammoths once lived during different stages of the Pleistocene to be reconstructed [3]. By studying the fossils of fish, microbes, pollen, plants, molluscs and invertebrates a reconstruction of the Connecticut River Valley, in its state between 135 and 225 million years ago, was possible [1]. Ichnofossils (from invertebrates) also play an important role in reconstructing past ecosystems, as they are the result of organism-substrate interactions eg. burrowing and therefore provide information on both morphological and behavioral characteristics [4] Paleosols (soil) result from interactions of different organisms with different types of substrates, paleosols together with ichnofossils proved traces of numerous extinct fauna and flora. These traces are indicators of many physical characteristics in the past environment i.e. temperature, precipitation, water chemistry, levels of oxygen even the water table level at the time all of which add to a more defined reconstructed ecosystem [4].

There are many techniques used to reconstruct biodiversity using fossil specimens. One technique uses peels of coal balls (Figure 2), coal balls are solid masses made up of majority of calcium carbonate that precipitated in ancient peat beds [2]. A large proportion of the anatomical structure of plants, which lived in these ancient coal swamps consisting of peat, was therefore preserved [2]. Coal balls are cut with a saw, producing longitudinal and transverse sections; uncovered surfaces are then etched with hydrochloric acid [10]. A sheet of cellulose acetate, with acetone, is then applied to the exposed surface, which implants fossil cell walls to the sheet, once dried the peel is removed and studied under a microscope [2]. Another technique that uses acid is the analysis of preserved sores and pollen of different plant species. The shale in which some pollen and spore fossils are preserved can be dissolved in acid, thereby exposing the small structures for further study [1].

Figure 2: Above are examples of prepared coal ball peels used in the reconstruction of a 305 million old Carboniferous coal swamp [2]

Another interesting technique used on fossils is called slice data acquisition, used to produce three-dimensional images of fossils [9]. Three-dimensional images are highly informative, as they capture morphological information not possible with the conventional two-dimensional images. There are two approaches to this technique, namely the non-destructive and destructive approach. Non-destructive approaches include: Computed Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) whereas destructive approaches include: serial slicing and serial grinding [9].

Without fossils we would not be able to put together the many puzzle pieces biodiversity has left for us over the past millions of years, so much information on how life operates and its driving force would be lost. Biodiversity, as mentioned above, at present is in a state of crisis and if we ever have a hope of comprehending this situation, and the consequences it will have to life on earth, we have to look back to the past. We have to look to fossils.

References:
1. Abrams J, Riley e (2002) A Reconstruction of the Biodiversity of the Connecticut River Valley Using Fossil and Geological Evidence. The Traprock 1:18-22
2. Anon. Reconstructing an ancient environment. [Online]. [Cited 2007 Mar 13] Available from: www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/PaleoArt/Techniques/pages/reconstuct9.htm
3. Borodin AV, Strukova TV, Trofimova SS, Zinoviev EV. Reconstruction of mammoth environments at different stages of the Pleistocene in the West-Siberian Plain. [Intenet]. [Cited 2007 Mar 13] Available from: www.cq.rm.cnr.it/elephants2001/pdf/267_271.pdf
4. Hasiotis ST, Dubiel RF, Demko TM. A Holistic Approach to Reconstructing Triassic Paleoecosystems:Using Ichnofossils and Paleosols as a Basic Framework. [Internet]. [Cited 2007 Mar 13] Availablr from: www.nature.nps.gov/geology/paleontology/pub/grd3_3/pefo2.htm
5. Lingham-Soliar T (2001) The ichthyosaur integument: skin fibers, a means for a strong flexible and smooth skin. Lethaia 34:287-302
6. Martill DM (1996) Fossil explained 17: Ichtyosaurs. Geology Today
7. Sepkoksi JJ (1997) Biodiversity:Past, Present and Future. Journal of Paleontology 71 (4):533-539
8. Smith AB (2001) Large-scale heterogeneity of the fossil record:implication for Phanerozoic biodiversity studies. The Royal Society 356:351-367
9. Sutton MD, Briggs EG, Siveter DJ, Siveter DJ (2001) Methodologies for the Visualization and Reconstruction of Three-Dimensional Fossils from their Silurian Herefordshire Lagerstätte. Palaeontologia Electronica 4:1-17
10. Wang SJ, Hilton J, Galtier J, Tian B (2006) A large anatomically preserved calamitean stem from the Upper Permian of southwest China and its implications for calamitean development and functional anatomy. Plant Systematics and Evolution 261:229-244
11. Zhou Z (2004) The origin and early evolution of birds:discoveries, disputes, and perspectives from fossil evidence. Naturwissenschaften 91:455-471

PHYLICA DESCRIPTIONS

2007-03-26T10:48:00.000+02:00

Phylica red
Flowers Red.
Ovary superior.
Interfloral glands 2 number.
Flower sizw 6 mm.
Plant height 120–190 mm.

Phylica orange
Flowers Orange.
Ovary semi-inferior.
Interfloral glands 6 number.
Flower sizw 80 mm.
Plant height 100–350 mm.

Phylica large
Flowers Blue.
Ovary superior.
Interfloral glands 1 number.
Flower sizw 20–30 mm.
Plant height 2000–3000 mm.

Phylica small
Flowers Red.
Ovary inferior.
Interfloral glands 5 number.
Flower sizw 10 mm.
Plant height 150–200 mm.

Phylica blue
Flowers Blue.
Ovary semi-inferior.
Interfloral glands 1 number.
Flower sizw 10 mm.
Plant height 300–600 mm.

Phylica prostrate
Flowers Yellow.
Ovary superior.
Interfloral glands 5 number.
Flower sizw 50 mm.
Plant height 300–400 mm.

PHYLICA TRIVIAL CLASSIFICATION

2007-03-26T10:43:00.000+02:00

Key 5a. Phylica characters

Characters: 5 in data, 2 included, 2 in key.
Items: 6 in
data, 6 included, 6 in key.
Parameters: Rbase = 1.40 Abase = 2.00
Reuse = 1.01 Varywt = .80
Characters included: 1–2

Character reliabilities: 1–5,5.0

1(0).

Flowers Blue
... 2
Flowers Orange... Phylica
orange

Flowers Yellow... Phylica prostrate

Flowers Red... 3

2(1).

Ovary semi-inferior ... Phylica blue

Ovary superior... Phylica large

3(1).

Ovary inferior ... Phylica small

Ovary superior... Phylica red

BREVICEPS INTERACTIVE KEY

2007-03-25T12:24:00.000+02:00

Key 5a. Confirmatory characters

Characters: 13 in data, 11 included, 11 in key.
Items: 12
in data, 12 included, 12 in key.
Parameters: Rbase = 1.40 Abase =
2.00 Reuse = 1.01 Varywt = .80
Characters included: 2–9
11–13
Character reliabilities: 1–13,5.0

1(0).

Call position
unknown ... 2
Call position ground
level... 5
Call position underground... 6
Call position above ground... 7

2(1).

Endemism unknown ... Breviceps montanus

Endemism not endemic to South Africa... 3
Endemism endemic to South Africa... 4

3(2).

Lower surface colour unknown; lower surface texture unknown; eye size
unknown; dorsum colour brown/black ... Breviceps poweri

Lower surface colour light; lower surface texture smooth; eye size large;
dorsum colour pale/white... Breviceps
macrops

4(2).

Tympanum unknown; outer toes unknown; lower surface texture smooth; eye
size large ... Breviceps namaquensis

Tympanum not visible; outer toes longer than wide; lower surface texture
rough/granular; eye size unknown... Breviceps
sylvestris

5(1).

Endemism not endemic to South Africa; tympanum unknown; inner toes unknown;
outer toes unknown ... Breviceps mossambicus

Endemism endemic to South Africa; tympanum not visible; inner toes longer
than wide; outer toes longer than wide... Breviceps
acutirostris

6(1).

Outer toes unknown; endemism endemic to South Africa; advertisement call
chirp; lower surface texture rough/granular ... Breviceps
gibbosus

Outer toes as long as wide; endemism not endemic to South Africa;
advertisement call unknown; lower surface texture smooth... Breviceps
adspersus

7(1).

Inner toes unknown; outer toes unknown; lower surface colour unknown;
dorsum pattern unknown ... Breviceps verrucosus

Inner toes as long as wide; outer toes as long as wide; lower surface colour
light; dorsum pattern vertebral stripe... Breviceps rosei

Inner toes longer than wide; outer toes longer than wide; lower surface
colour dark; dorsum pattern no markings... Breviceps
fuscus

SOUTH AFRICA SHARKBASE: SPECIES DESCRIPTIONS

2007-03-24T12:03:00.000+02:00

Carcharodon carcharias

Carcharhinus leucas

Carcharhinus obscurus

Galeocerdo cuvier

Carcharias taurus

Sphyrna lewini

Triaenodon obesus

Poroderma pantherinum

Poroderma africanum

Haploblepharus edwardsii

Haploblepharus pictus

Callorhinchus capensis

Carcharodon carcharias

Full name and Author Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758).

Common name(s) Great white shark.

Bodyform Elongated.

Diagnosis A huge, spindle-shaped shark with conspicuous black eyes, a blunt, conical snout and large, triangular, saw-edged teeth (Ref. 5578). First dorsal-fin origin usually over the pectoral-fin inner margins. Caudal fin crescentic. Lead-grey to brown or black above, lighter on sides, and abruptly white below. Black spot at rear pectoral fin base.

Length (usual maximum) 7.2 metres.

Mass 3400 kg.

Depth range 1–1280 metres.

Colour Grey-blue.

Patterning Uniform.

Snout Conical.

Scales Placoid scales (denticles) present.

Tooth shape Large triangular, serrated on both sides.

Western longitudinal limit -180 degrees.

Eastern longitudinal limits 180 degrees.

Northern latitude limits 67 degrees.

Southern latitude limits -54 degrees.

Southern African distribution Entire Southern African Coast.

Freshwater tolerance Freshwater intolerant.

Biogeography Temperate waters; or Warm tropical waters; or Cold waters.

Habitats Coastal reefs; or Inshore; or Coral reefs; or Open ocean.

Food Seals; or Large fish; or Other sharks; or Sea birds (including penguins); or Medium-sized fish; or Squid.

Reproduction Live bearer (one to five).

Behaviour Aggressive, predatory.

Activity Both nocturnal and diurnal.

Social behaviour Usually solitary (exception when feeding).

Economic use Ecotourism including cage and night diving; or Unexploited.

Longevity 36 Years.

Minimum population doubling time 14 Years.

Population Status Uncommon.

Attack humans Yes.

Conservation Status Vulnerable.

Dorsal fins 2 count.

Dorsal spines 0 count.

Anal spines 0 count.

Synonyms Squalus carcharias Linnaeus, 1758 original combination; Carcharias lamia Rafinesque, 1810 junior synonym; Squalus lamia Blainville, 1816 questionable; Carcharias verus Cloquet, 1817 junior synonym; Squalus lamia Blainville, 1825 questionable; Carcharias rondeletti Bory de Saint-Vincent, 1829 other; Carcharias vulgaris (Richardson, 1836) junior synonym; Squalus vulgaris Richardson, 1836 junior synonym; Carcharodon smithi Bonaparte, 1838 junior synonym; Carcharodon smithii Agassiz, 1838 junior synonym; Carcharodon capensis Smith, 1839 junior synonym; Carcharodon rondeletii Müller & Henle, 1839 junior synonym; Carcharias atwoodi Storer, 1848 junior synonym; Carcharias vorax Owen, 1853 questionable; Carcharias maso Morris, 1898 junior synonym; Carcharodon albimors Whitley, 1939 junior synonym.

Global Distribution World-wide.

Gill clefts Five gill clefts.

Capitivy Non-captive.

Primary Reference Compagno, L.J.V., 1984. FAO species catalogue. Vol. 4. Sharks of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Part 1 - Hexanchiformes to Lamniformes. FAO Fish. Synop. 125(4/1):1-249.

Secondary reference Bass, A.J., 1986. Lamnidae. p. 98-100. In M.M. Smith and P.C. Heemstra (eds.) Smiths' sea fishes. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

Scientific co-ordinator Compagno, Leonard J.V.

Carcharhinus leucas

Full name and Author Carcharhinus leucas (Müller & Henle, 1839).

Common name(s) Zambezi or bull shark.

Bodyform Elongated.

Diagnosis A massive shark with a short, broad and blunt snout, small eyes and triangular saw-edged upper teeth; and lack of interdorsal ridge are sufficient to distinguish this species. First dorsal fin broad and triangular and less than 3.2 times height of 2nd dorsal fin; no interdorsal ridge. Grayish above, white below; fins with dark tips, especially in young individuals.

Length (usual maximum) 3.5 metres.

Mass 316.5 kg.

Depth range 1–152 metres.

Colour Grey.

Patterning Uniform.

Snout Broad; or Rounded.

Scales Placoid scales (denticles) present.

Tooth shape Large triangular, serrated on both sides.

Western longitudinal limit -117 degrees.

Eastern longitudinal limits 155 degrees.

Northern latitude limits 42 degrees.

Southern latitude limits -39 degrees.

Southern African distribution Port Elizabeth to Zambezi River.

Freshwater tolerance Freshwater tolerate.

Biogeography Temperate waters; or Warm tropical waters.

Habitats Bottom dwelling; or Shallow sandy area; or Shallow rocky areas; or Coastal reefs; or Inshore; or Estuaries; or Coral reefs; or Open ocean.

Food Seals; or Dolphins/porpoises; or Turtles; or Large fish; or Other sharks; or Sea birds (including penguins); or Medium-sized fish; or Squid; or Crustaceans; or Octopuses; or Small fish; or Bottom dwelling small fish; or Bottom dwelling invertebrates; or Canibalism.

Reproduction Live bearer (approximately eight to ten).

Behaviour Aggressive, predatory.

Activity Both nocturnal and diurnal.

Social behaviour Usually in pairs.

Economic use Commercially exploited; or Used in subsistence fisheries; or Gamefish (recreational use).

Longevity 32 Years.

Minimum population doubling time 14 Years.

Population Status Fairly common.

Attack humans Yes.

Conservation Status Near Threatened.

Dorsal fins 2 count.

Dorsal spines 0 count.

Anal spines 0 count.

Synonyms Carcharhinus amboinensis (non Müller & Henle, 1839) misidentification; Carcharias leucas Müller & Henle, 1839 original combination; Carcharhinus leucas (Müller & Henle, 1839) new combination; Carcharias zambezensis Peters, 1852 junior synonym; Carcharhinus zambezensis (Peters, 1852) junior synonym; Prionodon platyodon Poey, 1860 junior synonym; Squalus platyodon (Poey, 1860) junior synonym; Squalus obtusus Poey, 1861 junior synonym; Carcharias brachyurus (non Günther, 1870) misidentification; Eulamia nicaraguensis Gill, 1877 junior synonym; Carcharhinus nicaraguensis (Gill, 1877) junior synonym; Carcharhinus azureus (Gilbert & Starks, 1904) junior synonym; Carcharias azureus Gilbert & Starks, 1904 junior synonym; Carcharias spenceri Ogilby, 1910 junior synonym; Galeolamna stevensi (non Ogilby, 1911) misidentification; Galeolamna bogimba Whitley, 1943 junior synonym; Galeolamna greyi mckaili Whitley, 1945 junior synonym; Galeolamna mckaili Whitley, 1945 junior synonym; Carharhinus vanrooyeni Smith, 1958 junior synonym; Carcharhinus vanrooyeni Smith, 1958 junior synonym.

Global Distribution Near world-wide.

Gill clefts Five gill clefts.

Capitivy Captive - non-breeding.

Primary Reference Compagno, L.J.V., D.A. Ebert and M.J. Smale, 1989. Guide to the sharks and rays of southern Africa. New Holland (Publ.) Ltd., London. 158 p.

Secondary reference Wetherbee, B.M., S.H. Gruber and E. Cortes, 1990. Diet, feeding habits, digestion, and consumption in sharks, with special reference to the lemon shark, Negaprion brevirostris. p. 29-47. In: H.L. Pratt, Jr., S.H. Gruber and T. Taniuchi (eds.) Elasmobranchs as living resources: advances in the biology, ecology, systematics, and the status of the fisheries. NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 90. 517 p.

Scientific co-ordinator Compagno, Leonard J.V.

Carcharhinus obscurus

Full name and Author Carcharhinus obscurus (Lesueur, 1818).

Common name(s) Dusky shark.

Bodyform Elongated.

Diagnosis A large shark with a broadly rounded snout, triangular saw-edged upper teeth, curved moderate-sized pectoral fins, and an interdorsal ridge. Blue-grey, lead-grey above, white below; tips of pectoral and pelvic fins, as well as lower lobe of caudal fin and dorsal fins often dusky in young, plain in adults.

Length (usual maximum) 4.2 metres.

Mass 345.5 kg.

Depth range 1–400 metres.

Colour Dusky grey.

Patterning Uniform.

Snout Broad; or Rounded.

Scales Placoid scales (denticles) present.

Tooth shape Triangular, slanted and smooth.

Western longitudinal limit -120 degrees.

Eastern longitudinal limits -156 degrees.

Northern latitude limits 45 degrees.

Southern latitude limits -46 degrees.

Southern African distribution Cape Town to Zambezi.

Freshwater tolerance Freshwater intolerant.

Biogeography Temperate waters; or Warm tropical waters.

Habitats Coastal reefs; or Inshore; or Estuaries; or Coral reefs; or Open ocean.

Food Large fish; or Other sharks; or Sea birds (including penguins); or Medium-sized fish; or Squid; or Octopuses; or Small fish.

Reproduction Live bearer (approximately eight to ten).

Behaviour Aggressive, predatory.

Activity Both nocturnal and diurnal.

Social behaviour Often/usually in shoals.

Economic use Commercially exploited; or Used in subsistence fisheries; or Gamefish (recreational use).

Longevity 40 Years.

Minimum population doubling time 14 Years.

Population Status Fairly common.

Attack humans Rare incidents.

Conservation Status Near Threatened.

Dorsal fins 2 count.

Dorsal spines 0 count.

Anal spines 0 count.

Synonyms Squalus obscurus Lesueur, 1818 original combination; Eulamia obscura (Lesueur, 1818) new combination; Carcharinus obscurus (Lesueur, 1818) misspelling; Prionodon obvelatus Valenciennes, 1844 junior synonym; Galeolamna greyi Owen, 1853 questionable; Carcharhinus lamiella (non Jordan & Gilbert, 1882) misidentification; Carcharias macrurus Ramsay & Ogilby, 1887 junior synonym; Galeolamna macrurus (Ramsay & Ogilby, 1887) junior synonym; Galeolamna eblis Whitley, 1944 junior synonym; Carcharinus iranzae Fourmanoir, 1961 junior synonym; Carcharhinus iranzae Fourmanoir, 1961 junior synonym; Carcharhinus obscurella Deng, Xiong & Zhan, 1981 junior synonym.

Global Distribution World-wide.

Gill clefts Five gill clefts.

Capitivy Captive - non-breeding.

Primary Reference Compagno, L.J.V., 1984. FAO species catalogue. Vol. 4. Sharks of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Part 2 - Carcharhiniformes. FAO Fish. Synop. 125(4/2):251-655.

Secondary reference Bass, A.J., P.C. Heemstra and L.J.V Compagno, 1986. Carcharhinidae. p. 67-87. In M.M. Smith and P.C. Heemstra (eds.) Smiths' sea fishes. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

Scientific co-ordinator Compagno, Leonard J.V.

Galeocerdo cuvieri

Full name and Author Galeocerdo cuvier (Péron & Lesueur, 1822).

Common name(s) Tiger shark.

Bodyform Elongated.

Diagnosis A huge, vertical tiger-striped shark with a broad, bluntly rounded snout, long upper labial furrows, and a big mouth with large, saw-edged, cockscomb-shaped teeth; spiracles present; caudal keels low. Grey above with vertical dark grey to black bars and spots which appear faded in adults, white below.

Length (usual maximum) 7.4 metres.

Mass 807.4 kg.

Depth range 1–350 metres.

Colour Dark Grey.

Patterning Vertical dark bars.

Snout Blunt; or Broad.

Scales Placoid scales (denticles) present.

Tooth shape Backward pointing, curved saw-edged.

Western longitudinal limit -180 degrees.

Eastern longitudinal limits -180 degrees.

Northern latitude limits 62 degrees.

Southern latitude limits -42 degrees.

Southern African distribution Port Elizabeth to Zambezi River.

Freshwater tolerance Freshwater intolerant.

Biogeography Temperate waters; or Warm tropical waters.

Habitats Coastal reefs; or Inshore; or Coral reefs; or Open ocean.

Food Seals; or Dolphins/porpoises; or Turtles; or Large fish; or Other sharks; or Sea birds (including penguins); or Medium-sized fish; or Squid; or Crustaceans; or Octopuses; or Small fish; or Bottom dwelling small fish; or Bottom dwelling invertebrates; or Canibalism.

Reproduction Live bearer (20-50).

Behaviour Aggressive, predatory.

Activity Both nocturnal and diurnal.

Social behaviour Usually solitary (exception when feeding).

Economic use Commercially exploited; or Used in subsistence fisheries; or Gamefish (recreational use).

Longevity 50 Years.

Minimum population doubling time 4.5–14 Years.

Population Status Uncommon.

Attack humans Yes.

Conservation Status Near Threatened.

Dorsal fins 2 count.

Dorsal spines 0 count.

Anal spines 0 count.

Synonyms Galeocerda cuvier (Péron & Lesueur, 1822) misspelling; Squalus cuvier Péron & Lesueur, 1822 original combination; Galeocerdo cuvieri (Péron & Lesueur, 1822) misspelling; Squalus arcticus Faber, 1829 junior synonym; Galeocerdo arcticus (Faber, 1829) junior synonym; Galeus cepedianus Agassiz, 1838 junior synonym; Galeocerdo tigrinus Müller & Henle, 1839 junior synonym; Galeus maculatus Ranzani, 1840 junior synonym; Carcharias fasciatus Bleeker, 1852 junior synonym; Galeocerdo rayneri Macdonald & Barron, 1868 junior synonym; Carcharias hemprichii Klunzinger, 1871 junior synonym; Galeocerdo obtusus Klunzinger, 1871 junior synonym; Galeocerdo fasciatus van Kampen, 1907 other.

Global Distribution World-wide.

Gill clefts Five gill clefts.

Capitivy Poor captive.

Primary Reference Compagno, L.J.V., 1984. FAO species catalogue. Vol. 4. Sharks of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Part 2 - Carcharhiniformes. FAO Fish. Synop. 125(4/2):251-655.

Secondary reference Randall, J.E., 1992. Review of the biology of the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier). Aust. J. Mar. Freshwat. Res. 43(1):21-31.

Scientific co-ordinator Compagno, Leonard J.V.

Carcharias taurus

Full name and Author Carcharias taurus Rafinesque, 1810.

Common name(s) Ragged-tooth shark.

Bodyform Plump.

Diagnosis A shark with a short, pointed snout, small eyes, protruding spike-like teeth and small, equal-sized dorsal and anal fins; 1st dorsal fin closer to pelvic than to pectoral fins (Ref. 5578). Caudal fin with a pronounced subterminal notch and a short ventral lobe. Pale brown or grey, paler below, with dark spots that appear faded in adults; fins plain.

Length (usual maximum) 3.2 metres.

Mass 294 kg.

Depth range 1–191 metres.

Colour Brown.

Patterning Blotch marks.

Snout Pointed.

Scales Placoid scales (denticles) present.

Tooth shape Numerous rows of fang-like teeth.

Northern latitude limits 45 degrees.

Southern latitude limits 48 degrees.

Southern African distribution Cape Town to Zambezi.

Freshwater tolerance Freshwater intolerant.

Biogeography Temperate waters; or Warm tropical waters.

Habitats Bottom dwelling; or Coastal reefs; or Coral reefs.

Food Large fish; or Other sharks; or Medium-sized fish; or Squid; or Crustaceans; or Octopuses; or Small fish; or Bottom dwelling small fish; or Bottom dwelling invertebrates; or Canibalism.

Reproduction Live bearer (one to two) - embryonic cannibalism.

Behaviour Ambush predator.

Activity Both nocturnal and diurnal.

Social behaviour Usually solitary (exception when feeding).

Economic use Commercially exploited; or Used in subsistence fisheries; or Gamefish (recreational use).

Longevity 17 Years.

Minimum population doubling time 14 Years.

Population Status Fairly common.

Attack humans Rare incidents.

Conservation Status Vulnerable.

Dorsal fins 2 count.

Dorsal spines 0 count.

Anal spines 0 count.

Synonyms Odontaspis ferox (non Risso, 1810) misidentification; Carcharhinus taurus (Rafinesque, 1810) new combination; Charcharias taurus Rafinesque, 1810 misspelling; Odontaspis taurus (Rafinesque, 1810) new combination; Eugomphodus taurus (Rafinesque, 1810) new combination; Squalus americanus Mitchill, 1815 junior synonym; Odontaspis americanus (Mitchill, 1815) junior synonym; Squalus littoralis Lesueur, 1818 junior synonym; Squalus macrodus Mitchill, 1818 junior synonym; Carcharias griseus Ayres, 1843 junior synonym; Carcharias tricuspidatus (non Day, 1878) misidentification; Odontaspis cinerea Ramsay, 1880 other; Lamna ecarinata Hilgendorf, 1899 junior synonym; Odontaspis arenarius (Ogilby, 1911) junior synonym; Carcharias arenarius Ogilby, 1911 junior synonym; Carcharias owstoni Garman, 1913 junior synonym; Squalus lixa Larrañaga, 1923 other; Carcharias platensis (Lahille, 1928) junior synonym; Odontaspis platensis Lahille, 1928 junior synonym.

Global Distribution World-wide.

Gill clefts Five gill clefts.

Capitivy Captive breeding.

Primary Reference Bass, A.J. and L.J.V. Compagno, 1986. Odontaspididae. p. 104-105. In M.M. Smith and P.C. Heemstra (eds.) Smiths' sea fishes. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

Secondary reference van der Elst, R.P. and F. Adkin (eds.), 1991. Marine linefish: priority species and research objectives in southern Africa. Oceanogr. Res. Inst., Spec. Publ. No.1. 132 p.

Scientific co-ordinator Compagno, Leonard J.V.

Sphyrna lewini

Full name and Author Sphyrna lewini (Griffith & Smith, 1834).

Common name(s) Scalloped hammerhead shark.

Bodyform Elongated.

Diagnosis A large hammerhead with a notch at the center of head; first dorsal fin moderately high, second dorsal and pelvic fins low. Front margin of head broadly arched with prominent median notch. Side wings of head narrow, rear margins swept backward. Uniform grey, grayish brown, or olivaceous above, shading to white below; pectoral fins tipped with grey or black ventrally.

Length (usual maximum) 4.3 metres.

Mass 152.39 kg.

Depth range 1–512 metres.

Colour Grey.

Patterning Uniform.

Snout Flattened.

Scales Placoid scales (denticles) present.

Tooth shape Triangular, slanted and smooth.

Western longitudinal limit -180 degrees.

Eastern longitudinal limits 180 degrees.

Northern latitude limits 46 degrees.

Southern latitude limits -36 degrees.

Southern African distribution Port Elizabeth to Zambezi River.

Freshwater tolerance Freshwater intolerant.

Biogeography Temperate waters; or Warm tropical waters.

Habitats Coastal reefs; or Coral reefs; or Open ocean.

Food Large fish; or Other sharks; or Medium-sized fish; or Squid; or Crustaceans; or Octopuses; or Small fish; or Bottom dwelling small fish; or Bottom dwelling invertebrates; or Canibalism.

Reproduction Live bearer (approximately 30).

Behaviour Aggressive, predatory.

Activity Diurnal.

Social behaviour Often/usually in shoals.

Economic use Commercially exploited; or Used in subsistence fisheries; or Gamefish (recreational use).

Longevity 35 Years.

Minimum population doubling time 4.5–14 Years.

Population Status Fairly common.

Attack humans No, but can be traumatogenic.

Conservation Status Near Threatened.

Dorsal fins 2 count.

Dorsal spines 0 count.

Anal spines 0 count.

Synonyms Sphyrna zygaena (non Linnaeus, 1758) misidentification; Zygaena malleus (non Shaw & Nodder, 1789) misidentification; Zygaena indica van Hasselt, 1823 junior synonym; Sphyrna leweni (Griffith & Smith, 1834) misspelling; Zygaena lewini Griffith & Smith, 1834 original combination; Sphyrna mokarran (non Rüppell, 1837) misidentification; Cestracion leeuwenii Day, 1865 junior synonym; Zygaena erythraea Klunzinger, 1871 junior synonym; Cestracion oceanica Garman, 1913 junior synonym; Sphyrna diplana Springer, 1941 junior synonym.

Global Distribution World-wide.

Gill clefts Five gill clefts.

Capitivy Poor captive.

Primary Reference Compagno, L.J.V., 1984. FAO species catalogue. Vol. 4. Sharks of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Part 2 - Carcharhiniformes. FAO Fish. Synop. 125(4/2):251-655.

Secondary reference Wetherbee, B.M., S.H. Gruber and E. Cortes, 1990. Diet, feeding habits, digestion, and consumption in sharks, with special reference to the lemon shark, Negaprion brevirostris. p. 29-47. In: H.L. Pratt, Jr., S.H. Gruber and T. Taniuchi (eds.) Elasmobranchs as living resources: advances in the biology, ecology, systematics, and the status of the fisheries. NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 90. 517 p.

Scientific co-ordinator Compagno, Leonard J.V.

Triaenodon obesus

Full name and Author Triaenodon obesus (Rüppell, 1837).

Common name(s) Whitetip reef shark.

Bodyform Elongated.

Diagnosis A small, slender shark with an extremely short, broad snout, oval eyes, and conspicuous white tips on the 1st dorsal (sometimes 2nd) and upper caudal fins; 2nd dorsal almost as large as 1st; no interdorsal ridge. Spiracles usually present, teeth 47-50/ 44-46, in at least 2 functional rows. Grey above, lighter below and sometimes with dark spots on sides. First dorsal-fin lobe and dorsal caudal-fin lobe with conspicuous white tips, second dorsal-fin lobe and ventral caudal-fin lobe often white-tipped.

Length (usual maximum) 2.13 metres.

Mass 18.3 kg.

Depth range 1–330 metres.

Colour Grey-brown.

Patterning White tip to dorsal and tail fins.

Snout Blunt; or Broad.

Scales Placoid scales (denticles) present.

Tooth shape Sharp, cusped and oblique.

Western longitudinal limit -77 degrees.

Eastern longitudinal limits 33 degrees.

Northern latitude limits 29 degrees.

Southern latitude limits -30 degrees.

Southern African distribution Sodwana to Zambezi.

Freshwater tolerance Freshwater intolerant.

Biogeography Warm tropical waters.

Habitats Coral reefs.

Food Other sharks; or Medium-sized fish; or Squid; or Crustaceans; or Octopuses; or Small fish.

Reproduction Live bearer (one to five).

Behaviour Aggressive, predatory.

Activity Nocturnal.

Social behaviour Usually solitary (exception when feeding).

Economic use Unexploited.

Longevity 25 Years.

Minimum population doubling time 14 Years.

Population Status Uncommon.

Attack humans Harmless.

Conservation Status Near Threatened.

Dorsal fins 2 count.

Dorsal spines 0 count.

Anal spines 0 count.

Synonyms Trianodon obesus (Rüppell, 1837) misspelling; Carcharias obesus Rüppell, 1837 original combination; Triaenodon apicalis Whitley, 1939 junior synonym.

Global Distribution Near world-wide.

Gill clefts Five gill clefts.

Capitivy Poor captive.

Primary Reference Compagno, L.J.V., D.A. Ebert and M.J. Smale, 1989. Guide to the sharks and rays of southern Africa. New Holland (Publ.) Ltd., London. 158 p.

Secondary reference Wetherbee, B.M., S.H. Gruber and E. Cortes, 1990. Diet, feeding habits, digestion, and consumption in sharks, with special reference to the lemon shark, Negaprion brevirostris. p. 29-47. In: H.L. Pratt, Jr., S.H. Gruber and T. Taniuchi (eds.) Elasmobranchs as living resources: advances in the biology, ecology, systematics, and the status of the fisheries. NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 90. 517 p.

Scientific co-ordinator Compagno, Leonard J.V.

Poroderma pantherinum

Full name and Author Poroderma pantherinum (Müller & Henle, 1838).

Common name(s) Leopard catshark.

Bodyform Elongated.

Diagnosis A stocky shark with long nasal barbels and a highly variable color pattern of black spots, rings and lines in horizontal rows on a grey to whitish background; white below. There are 3 different forms, the typical 'pantherinum' with lines and rosettes of spots, and two extreme forms, 'marleyi' with large dark spots (formerly considered a separate species), and 'salt and pepper' with small, densely packed black spots, intermediates between these extremes are extremely common.

Length (usual maximum) 0.73–0.84 metres.

Depth range 1–256 metres.

Colour Dark Grey.

Patterning Spots and stripes; or Dark spots.

Snout Rounded.

Scales Placoid scales (denticles) present.

Tooth shape Small, pointed and tricuspid.

Western longitudinal limit 17 degrees.

Eastern longitudinal limits 32 degrees.

Northern latitude limits -28 degrees.

Southern latitude limits -36 degrees.

Southern African distribution St Helena Bay to Durban.

Freshwater tolerance Freshwater intolerant.

Biogeography Temperate waters; or Cold waters.

Habitats Bottom dwelling; or Shallow rocky areas; or Coastal reefs; or Inshore.

Food Octopuses; or Small fish; or Bottom dwelling small fish; or Bottom dwelling invertebrates.

Reproduction Egg cases (usually two).

Behaviour Shy.

Activity Nocturnal.

Social behaviour Usually solitary (exception when feeding).

Economic use Gamefish (recreational use).

Longevity 10 Years.

Minimum population doubling time 4.5–14 Years.

Population Status Uncommon.

Attack humans Harmless.

Conservation Status South African endemic; or Least Concern.

Dorsal fins 2 count.

Dorsal spines 0 count.

Anal spines 0 count.

Synonyms Scyllium leopardinum Müller & Henle, 1838 other.

Global Distribution Southeast Atlantic; or Southern Atlantic-Indian transition; or Southwest Indian.

Gill clefts Spiracle.

Capitivy Captive breeding.

Primary Reference Compagno, L.J.V., D.A. Ebert and M.J. Smale, 1989. Guide to the sharks and rays of southern Africa. New Holland (Publ.) Ltd., London. 158 p.

Secondary reference Branch, G.M., Griffiths, C.L., Branch, M.L., and Beck, L.E., 1994. Two Oceans: A guide to the marine lif of southern Africa. David Philip, Cape Town and Johannesburg.

Scientific co-ordinator Compagno, Leonard J.V.

Poroderma africanum

Full name and Author Poroderma africanum (Gmelin, 1789).

Common name(s) Pyjama catshark.

Bodyform Elongated.

Diagnosis A large catshark with short nasal barbels and long horizontal black stripes.

Length (usual maximum) 1 metres.

Mass 5 kg.

Depth range 1–130 metres.

Colour Dark Grey.

Patterning Longitudinal stripes.

Snout Pointed.

Scales Placoid scales (denticles) present.

Tooth shape Small, pointed and tricuspid.

Western longitudinal limit 17 degrees.

Eastern longitudinal limits 32 degrees.

Northern latitude limits -28 degrees.

Southern latitude limits -36 degrees.

Southern African distribution St Helena Bay to Durban.

Freshwater tolerance Freshwater intolerant.

Biogeography Temperate waters.

Habitats Bottom dwelling; or Shallow sandy area; or Shallow rocky areas; or Inshore.

Food Octopuses; or Small fish; or Bottom dwelling small fish; or Bottom dwelling invertebrates; or Canibalism.

Reproduction Egg cases (usually two).

Behaviour Shy.

Activity Nocturnal.

Social behaviour Usually solitary (exception when feeding).

Economic use Used in subsistence fisheries; or Gamefish (recreational use).

Longevity 10 Years.

Minimum population doubling time 4.5–14 Years.

Population Status Fairly common.

Attack humans No, but can be traumatogenic.

Conservation Status South African endemic; or Near Threatened.

Dorsal fins 2 count.

Dorsal spines 0 count.

Anal spines 0 count.

Synonyms Scyllium africanum (Gmelin, 1789) new combination; Squalus africanus Gmelin, 1789 original combination; Conoporoderma africanum (Gmelin, 1789) new combination; Squalus vittatus Shaw, 1798 junior synonym; Squalus striatus Forster, 1844 junior synonym.

Global Distribution Southeast Atlantic; or Southern Atlantic-Indian transition; or Southwest Indian.

Gill clefts Spiracle.

Capitivy Captive breeding.

Primary Reference Compagno, L.J.V., D.A. Ebert and M.J. Smale, 1989. Guide to the sharks and rays of southern Africa. New Holland (Publ.) Ltd., London. 158 p.

Secondary reference Branch, G.M., Griffiths, C.L., Branch, M.L., and Beck, L.E., 1994. Two Oceans: A guide to the marine lif of southern Africa. David Philip, Cape Town and Johannesburg.

Scientific co-ordinator Compagno, Leonard J.V.

Haploblepharus edwardsii

Full name and Author Haploblepharus edwardsii (Voigt, 1832).

Common name(s) Puffadder shyshark.

Bodyform Elongated.

Diagnosis Southeastern Cape form: sandy brown with 7 reddish-brown saddles bordered by black, and numerous small, dark brown and white spots between saddles; white below. Natal form: body cream in color with darker brown saddles and irregular white spots; white below.

Length (usual maximum) 0.6 metres.

Mass 5 kg.

Depth range 1–130 metres.

Colour Yellow-brown; or Brown.

Patterning Dark saddles over dorsal surface.

Snout Round to pointed.

Scales Placoid scales (denticles) present.

Tooth shape Narrow pointed cusps.

Western longitudinal limit 17 degrees.

Eastern longitudinal limits 32 degrees.

Northern latitude limits -28 degrees.

Southern latitude limits -36 degrees.

Southern African distribution Cape Town to Durban.

Freshwater tolerance Freshwater intolerant.

Biogeography Temperate waters.

Habitats Bottom dwelling; or Shallow sandy area; or Shallow rocky areas; or Inshore.

Food Octopuses; or Bottom dwelling small fish; or Bottom dwelling invertebrates.

Reproduction Egg cases (usually two).

Behaviour Shy.

Activity Nocturnal.

Social behaviour Usually solitary (exception when feeding).

Economic use Gamefish (recreational use).

Longevity 10 Years.

Minimum population doubling time 4.5–14 Years.

Population Status Very Common.

Attack humans Harmless.

Conservation Status South African endemic; or Least Concern.

Dorsal fins 2 count.

Dorsal spines 0 count.

Anal spines 0 count.

Synonyms Scyllium edwardsii Voigt, 1832 original combination.

Global Distribution Southern Atlantic-Indian transition.

Gill clefts Spiracle.

Capitivy Captive breeding.

Primary Reference Compagno, L.J.V., 1984. FAO species catalogue. Vol. 4. Sharks of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Part 2 - Carcharhiniformes. FAO Fish. Synop. 125(4/2):251-655.

Secondary reference Branch, G.M., Griffiths, C.L., Branch, M.L., and Beck, L.E., 1994. Two Oceans: A guide to the marine lif of southern Africa. David Philip, Cape Town and Johannesburg.

Scientific co-ordinator Compagno, Leonard J.V.

Haploblepharus pictus

Full name and Author Haploblepharus pictus (Müller & Henle, 1838).

Common name(s) Dark shyshark; Donker skaamoog; Skaamhaai.

Bodyform Elongated.

Diagnosis A shyshark with dark markings with large light spots without black edges on a yellowish-brown body and on fins; body also with 7 dark brown or blackish dorsal saddles.

Length (usual maximum) 0.57 metres.

Mass 5 kg.

Depth range 1–130 metres.

Colour Brown.

Patterning Dark saddles over dorsal surface.

Snout Blunt; or Rounded.

Scales Placoid scales (denticles) present.

Tooth shape Narrow pointed cusps.

Western longitudinal limit 16 degrees.

Eastern longitudinal limits 20 degrees.

Northern latitude limits -29 degrees.

Southern latitude limits -36 degrees.

Southern African distribution Northern Namibia to Port Elizabeth.

Freshwater tolerance Freshwater intolerant.

Biogeography Cold waters.

Habitats Bottom dwelling; or Shallow sandy area; or Shallow rocky areas; or Inshore.

Food Bottom dwelling invertebrates.

Reproduction Egg cases (usually two).

Behaviour Shy.

Activity Nocturnal.

Social behaviour Usually solitary (exception when feeding).

Economic use Gamefish (recreational use).

Longevity 10 Years.

Minimum population doubling time 4.5–14 Years.

Population Status Very Common.

Attack humans Harmless.

Conservation Status Southern African endemic; or Least Concern.

Dorsal fins 2 count.

Dorsal spines 0 count.

Anal spines 0 count.

Synonyms Scyllium pictum Müller & Henle, 1838 original combination.

Global Distribution Southeast Atlantic; or Southern Atlantic-Indian transition.

Gill clefts Spiracle.

Capitivy Captive breeding.

Primary Reference Compagno, L.J.V., 1984. FAO species catalogue. Vol. 4. Sharks of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Part 2 - Carcharhiniformes. FAO Fish. Synop. 125(4/2):251-655.

Secondary reference Bianchi, G., K.E. Carpenter, J.-P. Roux, F.J. Molloy, D. Boyer and H.J. Boyer, 1993. FAO species identification field guide for fishery purposes. The living marine resources of Namibia. FAO, Rome. 250 p.

Scientific co-ordinator Compagno, Leonard J.V.

Callorhinchus capensis

Full name and Author Callorhinchus capensis (Duméril, 1865).

Common name(s) St Joseph shark; Cape elephantfish.

Bodyform Elongated.

Diagnosis An elephant fish or St Joseph shark with a hoe-like snout and arched caudal fin. Silvery all over. Scaleless with a single dorsal spine.

Length (usual maximum) 1.22 metres.

Mass 5.25 kg.

Depth range 10–374 metres.

Colour Silvery.

Patterning Uniform.

Snout Trunk-like.

Scales Scales absent.

Tooth shape Plate-like.

Western longitudinal limit 16 degrees.

Eastern longitudinal limits 32 degrees.

Northern latitude limits -16 degrees.

Southern latitude limits -35 degrees.

Southern African distribution Swakopmund to Durban.

Freshwater tolerance Freshwater tolerate.

Biogeography Temperate waters; or Cold waters.

Habitats Bottom dwelling; or Shallow sandy area; or Inshore; or Open ocean.

Food Bottom dwelling small fish; or Bottom dwelling invertebrates.

Reproduction Egg cases - hairy and spindle shaped.

Behaviour Shy.

Activity Diurnal.

Social behaviour Often/usually in shoals.

Economic use Commonly commercially exploited; or Gamefish (recreational use).

Longevity 10 Years.

Minimum population doubling time 4.5–14 Years.

Population Status Fairly common.

Attack humans No, but can be traumatogenic.

Conservation Status Least Concern.

Dorsal fins 2 count.

Dorsal spines 1 count.

Anal spines 0 count.

Synonyms Callorhynchus antarcticus (non Fleming, 1822) misidentification; Callorynchus capensis (Duméril, 1865) misspelling;.

Global Distribution Southeast Atlantic; or Southern Atlantic-Indian transition.

Gill clefts Spiracle.

Capitivy Captive - non-breeding.

Primary Reference Krefft, G., 1990. Callorynchidae. p. 117. In J.C. Quero, J.C. Hureau, C. Karrer, A. Post and L. Saldanha (eds.) Check-list of the fishes of the eastern tropical Atlantic (CLOFETA). JNICT, Lisbon; SEI, Paris; and UNESCO, Parisl. Vol. 1.

Secondary reference Compagno, L.J.V., D.A. Ebert and M.J. Smale, 1989. Guide to the sharks and rays of southern Africa. New Holland (Publ.) Ltd., London. 158 p.

Scientific co-ordinator Unknown.

AMBER, THE LOOKING GLASS INTO THE PAST

2007-03-23T11:03:00.000+02:00

A variety of techniques are used to reconstruct biodiversity. Techniques using fossil specimens can be employed to reconstruct biodiversity. Techniques such as acetone peels, cat scans and x-rays are also used. Fossils found in amber (fossilized tree sap or resin) really drew my attention, as the degree of preservation is phenomenal.

Amber originated from an extinct tree namely, Hymenaea which was prevalent in an ancient rainforest. Animals, plants and animals became entrapped in this resin leaving us with exquisite detail of what life was like millions of years ago. Amber even provides awesome preservation of internal organs, soft tissue, the last meal of an organism and muscles. Amber is therefore able to explain a lot in terms of evolutionary processes [1].

Most of the inclusions found in amber are those of extinct species [1]. Some rare inclusions are those of lizards, scorpions, mammal hair and blood filled ticks. Seeds, leaves and buds are among those of botanical inclusions. In some rare cases, pollen streams were created as the resin flowed over the flower and the pollen was carried away thus creating a scene so realistic as if the winds were still blowing.

There are various kinds of Amber namely Baltic, Bitterfeld (Saxon), Florissant, Dominican and Lebanese amber. Baltic amber is the most famous dating back to the Early Eocene and Early Oligocene. Baltic amber was formed in the vast forests of Fennoscandia consisting mainly of Arecaceae (palms) and Fagaceae (oaks) and a few conifers. Pinaceae and Cupressaceae were probably the main plants to produce resin. Organisms were entrapped in the resin and fossilization occurred over millions of years under high pressure and anaerobic conditions. The amber was washed into the Baltic Sea where it is still prevalent today [1].

Although amber can be found in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, it does not compare to the vast amounts found in Sambia that forms part of Russia. About 90% of the world’s extractable amber can be found in the Kaliningrad region of Russia on the Baltic Sea. Amber is collected by using nets that are attached to long poles, or it is raked up between the boulders in shallow waters from boats. Divers also retrieve amber found in deep waters. Extensive mining is presently being undertaken in the search for more amber.

Firstly, I will be looking at bacteria found in Amber. You may ask why bacteria and of what importance are they to us? All organisms contribute to life in some way and provide unique insights that are lost forever if species become extinct [2]. Bacteria are not all bad as they play vital roles in the global ecosystem. The insights from one species could very likely open the doors to new information about past and present evolution.

The oldest bacteria found in Dominican amber are believed to be about 25 to 40 million years old. This evidence came from retrieving and identifying a bacterial spore from the abdominal contents of extinct bees. The bacterium survived for millions of years without air or nutrients. It is able to have long periods of dormancy. Evidence showed that the isolated bacterium actually possessed qualities of an ancient origin. Further investigations gave the indication that the ancient bacterium is very closely related to extant Bacillus sphaericus. Cano claims to have discovered 30 to 40 species of Bacteria. Most are from the genus Bacillus. Some of the organisms from the genus, Bacillus thuringiensis are used for biological control of insects [3].

There is evidence of bacteria in the fossil record. Who would have thought that bacteria could in actual fact leave fossils? The oldest fossils known that are quite similar to cyanobacteria, are about 3.5 billion years old [4]. These are however not found in amber. Because they are the oldest fossils known today they are therefore very important as they can tell us more about our history. Structures called stromatolites come from Cyanobacteria [4]. When these fossil stromalites are carefully sectioned, the discoveries are phenomenal. One is able to observe fossil cyanobacteria and algae with a very high degree of preservation.

The picture above depicts cyanobacterial cells aged at about 1 billion years old. These cells are actually very similar to present day cyanobacteria. This is not only true for an isolated case but many living genera of cyanobacteria can be linked to fossil cyanobacteria. The detail noted in the fossils of this group gives indication of extreme conservation of morphology, more extreme than in other organisms [4].

The record held for the smallest fossils (a few hundred millionths of a meter) are those of magnetobacteria. This group of bacteria actually form nanometer-sized crystals of magnetite (iron oxide) inside their cells. These crystals have been found in rocks aged two billion years old [4].

Secondly, an amazing discovery was made finding a bee embedded in amber aged 100 million years old. This may even be the oldest bee ever discovered. Poinar (2006) says that this discovery “pushes the bee fossil record back about 35 million years”. This bee was found in a mine in northern Myanmar (Burma) by Danforth and Poinar.

Scientists are under the notion that the first appearance of bees was about 120 million years ago. Unfortunately, previous fossil records could only be dated back to 65 million years. There is strong evidence presently indicating a more remote ancestor due to the contributions made by Danforth and Poinar. Their fossil also indicates a link between bees and wasps as wasp traits are prevalent in the fossil found [5].

Learning more about the evolutionary patterns of bees, one is able to relate it to the evolution of flowering plants. This is due to an assumption that bees have always been around facilitating in pollination of plants thus creating a vast number of new species [5].

Many researchers believe that bees originated in the Southern Hemisphere (either South America or Australia) because primitive bees are believed to come from the family, Collectidae. Danforth’s work suggests otherwise indicating the family Mellittidae as the origin. Taking the latter into consideration, it would mean that bees actually have an African origin and could very likely be nearly as old as flowering plants [5]. This would tell us a lot about these plants evolutionary diversification.

Fossils found in amber also portray the social interactions between organisms e.g. mating, commensalism and parasitism, trapping two fossils in one piece of amber [6]. Nematode parasites from the family Mermithidae target ants as their main host group. Baltic amber has captured the attack of a nematode juvenile on a male ant [7]. This information indicates the prevalence of parasitic interactions with ants in the Eocene.

Amber has become very popular in the jewellery industry and I think that human greed for wealth might be the driving force for discovering new and fascinating fossils in their search for amber.

References:

[1] Rossi, W., Kortrba, M., Triebel, D. (2004). A new species of Stigmatomyces from Baltic amber, the first fossil record of Laboulbeniomycetes. The British Mycological Society. 109 (3): 271-274

[2] Kunin, W.E. & Lawton, J.H. (1996). Does biodiversity matter? Evaluating the case for conserving species. In: Biodiversity, a biology of numbers and difference, K.J. Gaston (ed.), Blackwell Science, Oxford, pp. 283—308.

[3] Cano, R.J. & Boruck M.K. (1995). Revival and identification of bacterial spores in 25 to 40 million-year-old Dominican amber. Science. 268(5213): 1060-4

[4] http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/bacteria/bacteriafr.html

[5] Poinar, G.O. & Danforth B.N. (2006). A fossil bee from Early Cretaceous Burmese Amber. Science. 314#5799: 614

[6] http://www.iob.org/downloads/1153.pdf

[7] http://journals.cambridge.org/download.php?file=%2FPAR%2FPAR125_05 2FS0031182002002287a.pdf&code=4d0c6b99c0a6540c7fc0936b8a4b398c

TAXONOMIC KEY

2007-03-22T12:29:00.000+02:00

I will be creating a key on a group of whales and dolphins.

SOUTH AFRICA SHARKBASE: INTERACTIVE KEY

2007-03-22T11:54:00.000+02:00

Key to the 12 common sharks found around the South African Coast

Characters: 41 in data, 23 included, 11 in key.
Items: 12 in data, 12 included, 12 in key.
Parameters: Rbase = 1.40 Abase = 2.00 Reuse = 1.01 Varywt = .80
Characters included: 3 8–12 17–26 29–31 36–38 41
Character reliabilities: 1–41,5.0

1(0).

Tooth shape Large triangular, serrated on both sides ... 2
Tooth shape Triangular, slanted and smooth... 3
Tooth shape Backward pointing, curved saw-edged... Galeocerdo cuvieri
Tooth shape Sharp, cusped and oblique... Triaenodon obesus
Tooth shape Small, pointed and tricuspid... 4
Tooth shape Numerous rows of fang-like teeth... Carcharias taurus
Tooth shape Narrow pointed cusps... 5
Tooth shape Plate-like... Callorhinchus capensis

2(1).

Colour Grey; Southern African distribution Port Elizabeth to Zambezi River; Freshwater tolerance Freshwater tolerate; Reproduction Live bearer (approximately eight to ten) ... Carcharhinus leucas
Colour Grey-blue; Southern African distribution Entire Southern African Coast; Freshwater tolerance Freshwater intolerant; Reproduction Live bearer (one to five)... Carcharodon carcharias

3(1).

Colour Dusky grey; Reproduction Live bearer (approximately eight to ten); Activity Both nocturnal and diurnal; Attack humans Rare incidents ... Carcharhinus obscurus
Colour Grey; Reproduction Live bearer (approximately 30); Activity Diurnal; Attack humans No, but can be traumatogenic... Sphyrna lewini

4(1).

Attack humans No, but can be traumatogenic; Snout Pointed; Population Status Fairly common; Capitivy Captive - poor breeding ... Poroderma africanum
Attack humans Harmless; Snout Rounded; Population Status Uncommon; Capitivy Captive breeding... Poroderma pantherinum

5(1).

Biogeography Temperate waters ... Haploblepharus edwardsii
Biogeography Cold waters... Haploblepharus pictus

Dane's taxonomic key

2007-03-19T11:50:00.000+02:00

I am yet to decide on a specific group but I will design a key to describe a group of frogs

BIODIVERSITY: BREAKDOWN OF NOTIONAL HOURS

2007-03-19T02:32:00.000+02:00

Last week some of you came to discuss the biodiversity course and to suggest to me that I was over-assessing you (and by implication too much work). I have discussed this matter with both the internal examiner and the Honours co-ordinator. We need to stress that each HONOURS course needs to represent 100 notional hours of work. A notional hour, is time productively spent for an average person, consequently it represents concentrated effort. If anything the course is a little short of this requirement. In order to guide how much "concentrated" effort you will need to invest I propose the following breakdown of investment time as guidance.

PowerPoint presentation [30%]: expect to invest 20 hours. I have re-checked my posting and it clearly stated that sound needs to be added - if you do not provide sound it will mean you get marked out of 90 instead of 100% (viz deduction of 10 marks). It is important that you read instructions carefully. I will help you put sound on in class. Please examine the rubric to guide you on this assignment's assessment.

Studying for Tests [20%]: expect to invest a total of 30 hours. This is calculated on about five hours for each chapter - I will restrict testing to six chapters only (hence five hours times six equals 30 hours).

Classroom activities: will take up approximately 18 hours. This will consist of watching videos, discussion of topics, informal lectures (e.g. Mr Weitz presentation on use of Delta Taxonomic database), and some instruction on techniques etc. This provides preparation for undertaking the assignments.

Blog contributions [30%]: expect to invest 20 hours. This is a very important component since this is what the external will see of your work. As indicated you are required to post at least two reasonably long (minimum of 500 words) contribution one of which must relate to re-constructing past biodiversity. I will also request that work that is done during class (e.g. your experience in using the Restio delta key) is also put up. You will also need to ensure that an abstract for your PowerPoint is posted. Finally your HTML taxonomic key and HTML species descriptions (with illustrations) will also need to be put onto the Blog (this is easy since Delta writes to HTML). You will also need to provide significant comment on at least four postings.

Develop a "Taxonomic Key" using Delta [20%]: expect to invest no more than 12 hours. David and I were able to complete this assignment with illustrations and posting it onto the Blog within a day [8 hours]. Please remember that I have also never used an electronic interactive key before and I worked with a group of animals that I am completely unfamiliar with (12 species of sharks). Entering your Taxa, Characters and Character states is very easy and goes really fast. Most of the time will be needed in getting the information (for me a large chunk of time was invested in generating the point distribution maps). In conclusion it is very difficult to reduce the amount of assignments and to ensure that we adequately meet the legal requirements of the 100 notional hours as registered with SAQA. Compared to other of my courses - this is a straight-forward module and you should come well prepared given your undergraduate background. You are welcome to provide comment on this posting. The purpose of the Blog is also to ensure all academic transactions are transparent and to ensure the internal and external examiner has a fair insight to evaluate the quality of the course and your participation.

Cheers

Rich

DENDROMONOCOTYLE KEY 5a

2007-03-18T21:34:00.000+02:00

This is the second posting for the Biodiversity assignment using the Delta key of Dallwitz, Paine and Zurcher (2006). The following is the actual Key 5a sequence from the www delta file, Dendromonocotyle key:

Dendromonocotyle key actual:

Key 5a. Confirmatory characters

Characters: 12 in data, 11 included, 4 in key.
Items: 19 in data, 19 included, 171 in key.
Parameters: Rbase = 1.40 Abase = 2.00 Reuse = 1.01 Varywt = .80
Characters included: 1 3–12
Character reliabilities: 1–12,5.0

1(0).

Distal portion of male copulatory organ Distal portion of male copulatory organ widens before splitting in two ... 2
Distal portion of male copulatory organ Distal end inflated with thick sclerotised wall... 3
Distal portion of male copulatory organ Male copulatory organ short. Distal portion with small sclerotised ridges... 4
Distal portion of male copulatory organ Distal portion simple, narrowing to a point. not sclerotised... 5
Distal portion of male copulatory organ Sperm duct within distal portion loops once before straightening... 6
Distal portion of male copulatory organ Distal portion looping twice then narrowing to a point. Spiral accessary filament present... 7
Distal portion of male copulatory organ Distal portion spiralling once distal to distinct flaring accessory filaments... 8
Distal portion of male copulatory organ Distal portion of male copulatoiry organ splits into two... 9
Distal portion of male copulatory organ Distal portion tapers to a point, has sclerotised projection, and is encircled by a spiral filament.... 10
Distal portion of male copulatory organ Very short entire male copulatory organ length ending in a spout... 11
Distal portion of male copulatory organ Distal portion of male copulatory organ with coiled sclerotised filament. Muscular sheath with crown of sclerotised spines... 12
Distal portion of male copulatory organ Sperm duct within distal portion of male copulatory organ criss-crossed and has sclerotised accessory flange... 13
Distal portion of male copulatory organ Distal portion of male copulatory organ with unsclerotised accessory filament... 14
Distal portion of male copulatory organ Distal portion of male copulatory organ with sclerotised accessory filament... 15
Distal portion of male copulatory organ Sperm duct within distal portion of male copulatory organ criss-crossed.... 16
Distal portion of male copulatory organ Sperm duct within distal portion of male copulatory organ appears to split and cross over itself once, terminally.... 18
Distal portion of male copulatory organ Sperm duct is straight within distal portion of male copulatory organ... 19

2(1).

Tripartite sclerites Unknown; number of papillary scelerites Unknown ... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Tripartite sclerites Present at junction of inner and outer-ring septa and radial septa; number of papillary scelerites 6 - 9... Dendromonocotyle taeniurae Euzet & Maillard, 1967

3(1).

Monogenean ectoparasite Skate host ... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Guitarfish host... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host... Dendromonocotyle torosa Chisholm & Whittington, 2004
Monogenean ectoparasite Very small or absent hamuli... Dendromonocotyle torosa Chisholm & Whittington, 2004
Monogenean ectoparasite Obvious or large/pronounced hamuli... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of gill tissue... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of skin surface... Dendromonocotyle torosa Chisholm & Whittington, 2004
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape without defined loculi... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi... Dendromonocotyle torosa Chisholm & Whittington, 2004
Monogenean ectoparasite No dendritic intestinal caecum... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Dendritic intestinal caecum... Dendromonocotyle torosa Chisholm & Whittington, 2004

4(1).

Tripartite sclerites Unknown ... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Tripartite sclerites Absent... Dendromonocotyle pipinna Chisholm & Whittington, 2004

5(1).

Monogenean ectoparasite Skate host ... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Guitarfish host... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host... Dendromonocotyle kuhlii Young, 1976
Monogenean ectoparasite Very small or absent hamuli... Dendromonocotyle kuhlii Young, 1976
Monogenean ectoparasite Obvious or large/pronounced hamuli... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of gill tissue... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of skin surface... Dendromonocotyle kuhlii Young, 1976
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape without defined loculi... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi... Dendromonocotyle kuhlii Young, 1976
Monogenean ectoparasite No dendritic intestinal caecum... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Dendritic intestinal caecum... Dendromonocotyle kuhlii Young, 1976

6(1).

Monogenean ectoparasite Skate host ... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Guitarfish host... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host... Dendromonocotyle cortesi Bravo-Hollis, 1969
Monogenean ectoparasite Very small or absent hamuli... Dendromonocotyle cortesi Bravo-Hollis, 1969
Monogenean ectoparasite Obvious or large/pronounced hamuli... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of gill tissue... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of skin surface... Dendromonocotyle cortesi Bravo-Hollis, 1969
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape without defined loculi... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi... Dendromonocotyle cortesi Bravo-Hollis, 1969
Monogenean ectoparasite No dendritic intestinal caecum... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Dendritic intestinal caecum... Dendromonocotyle cortesi Bravo-Hollis, 1969

7(1).

Monogenean ectoparasite Skate host ... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Guitarfish host... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host... Dendromonocotyle akajeii Ho & Perkins, 1980
Monogenean ectoparasite Very small or absent hamuli... Dendromonocotyle akajeii Ho & Perkins, 1980
Monogenean ectoparasite Obvious or large/pronounced hamuli... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of gill tissue... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of skin surface... Dendromonocotyle akajeii Ho & Perkins, 1980
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape without defined loculi... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi... Dendromonocotyle akajeii Ho & Perkins, 1980
Monogenean ectoparasite No dendritic intestinal caecum... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Dendritic intestinal caecum... Dendromonocotyle akajeii Ho & Perkins, 1980

8(1).

Monogenean ectoparasite Skate host ... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Guitarfish host... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host... Dendromonocotyle ardea Chisholm & Whittington, 1995
Monogenean ectoparasite Very small or absent hamuli... Dendromonocotyle ardea Chisholm & Whittington, 1995
Monogenean ectoparasite Obvious or large/pronounced hamuli... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of gill tissue... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of skin surface... Dendromonocotyle ardea Chisholm & Whittington, 1995
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape without defined loculi... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi... Dendromonocotyle ardea Chisholm & Whittington, 1995
Monogenean ectoparasite No dendritic intestinal caecum... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Dendritic intestinal caecum... Dendromonocotyle ardea Chisholm & Whittington, 1995

9(1).

Monogenean ectoparasite Skate host ... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Guitarfish host... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host... Dendromonocotyle californica Olson & Jeffries, 1983
Monogenean ectoparasite Very small or absent hamuli... Dendromonocotyle californica Olson & Jeffries, 1983
Monogenean ectoparasite Obvious or large/pronounced hamuli... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of gill tissue... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of skin surface... Dendromonocotyle californica Olson & Jeffries, 1983
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape without defined loculi... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi... Dendromonocotyle californica Olson & Jeffries, 1983
Monogenean ectoparasite No dendritic intestinal caecum... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Dendritic intestinal caecum... Dendromonocotyle californica Olson & Jeffries, 1983

10(1).

Monogenean ectoparasite Skate host ... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Guitarfish host... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host... Dendromonocotyle octodiscus Hargis, 1955
Monogenean ectoparasite Very small or absent hamuli... Dendromonocotyle octodiscus Hargis, 1955
Monogenean ectoparasite Obvious or large/pronounced hamuli... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of gill tissue... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of skin surface... Dendromonocotyle octodiscus Hargis, 1955
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape without defined loculi... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi... Dendromonocotyle octodiscus Hargis, 1955
Monogenean ectoparasite No dendritic intestinal caecum... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Dendritic intestinal caecum... Dendromonocotyle octodiscus Hargis, 1955

11(1).

Monogenean ectoparasite Skate host ... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Guitarfish host... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host... Dendromonocotyle centrourae Cheung & Whittaker, 1993
Monogenean ectoparasite Very small or absent hamuli... Dendromonocotyle centrourae Cheung & Whittaker, 1993
Monogenean ectoparasite Obvious or large/pronounced hamuli... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of gill tissue... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of skin surface... Dendromonocotyle centrourae Cheung & Whittaker, 1993
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape without defined loculi... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi... Dendromonocotyle centrourae Cheung & Whittaker, 1993
Monogenean ectoparasite No dendritic intestinal caecum... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Dendritic intestinal caecum... Dendromonocotyle centrourae Cheung & Whittaker, 1993

12(1).

Monogenean ectoparasite Skate host ... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Guitarfish host... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host... Dendromonocotyle lasti Chisholm and Whittington, 2004
Monogenean ectoparasite Very small or absent hamuli... Dendromonocotyle lasti Chisholm and Whittington, 2004
Monogenean ectoparasite Obvious or large/pronounced hamuli... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of gill tissue... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of skin surface... Dendromonocotyle lasti Chisholm and Whittington, 2004
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape without defined loculi... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi... Dendromonocotyle lasti Chisholm and Whittington, 2004
Monogenean ectoparasite No dendritic intestinal caecum... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Dendritic intestinal caecum... Dendromonocotyle lasti Chisholm and Whittington, 2004

13(1).

Monogenean ectoparasite Skate host ... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Guitarfish host... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host... Dendromonocotyle bradsmithi Chisholm, Glennon & Whittington, 2005
Monogenean ectoparasite Very small or absent hamuli... Dendromonocotyle bradsmithi Chisholm, Glennon & Whittington, 2005
Monogenean ectoparasite Obvious or large/pronounced hamuli... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of gill tissue... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of skin surface... Dendromonocotyle bradsmithi Chisholm, Glennon & Whittington, 2005
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape without defined loculi... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi... Dendromonocotyle bradsmithi Chisholm, Glennon & Whittington, 2005
Monogenean ectoparasite No dendritic intestinal caecum... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Dendritic intestinal caecum... Dendromonocotyle bradsmithi Chisholm, Glennon & Whittington, 2005

14(1).

Monogenean ectoparasite Skate host ... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Guitarfish host... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host... Dendromonocotyle colorni Chisholm, Whittington & Kearn, 2001(Israel)
Monogenean ectoparasite Very small or absent hamuli... Dendromonocotyle colorni Chisholm, Whittington & Kearn, 2001(Israel)
Monogenean ectoparasite Obvious or large/pronounced hamuli... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of gill tissue... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of skin surface... Dendromonocotyle colorni Chisholm, Whittington & Kearn, 2001(Israel)
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape without defined loculi... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi... Dendromonocotyle colorni Chisholm, Whittington & Kearn, 2001(Israel)
Monogenean ectoparasite No dendritic intestinal caecum... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Dendritic intestinal caecum... Dendromonocotyle colorni Chisholm, Whittington & Kearn, 2001(Israel)

15(1).

Monogenean ectoparasite Skate host ... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Guitarfish host... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host... Dendromonocotyle colorni (South Africa population)
Monogenean ectoparasite Very small or absent hamuli... Dendromonocotyle colorni (South Africa population)
Monogenean ectoparasite Obvious or large/pronounced hamuli... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of gill tissue... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of skin surface... Dendromonocotyle colorni (South Africa population)
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape without defined loculi... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi... Dendromonocotyle colorni (South Africa population)
Monogenean ectoparasite No dendritic intestinal caecum... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Dendritic intestinal caecum... Dendromonocotyle colorni (South Africa population)

16(1).

Tripartite sclerites Unknown ... 17
Tripartite sclerites Present at junction of inner and outer-ring septa and radial septa... Dendromonocotyle ukuthena Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison, 2007
Tripartite sclerites Absent... Dendromonocotyle sp. 1 Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison (undescribed)

17(16).

Monogenean ectoparasite Skate host ... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Guitarfish host... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host... Dendromonocotyle ukuthena Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison, 2007
Monogenean ectoparasite Very small or absent hamuli... Dendromonocotyle ukuthena Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison, 2007
Monogenean ectoparasite Obvious or large/pronounced hamuli... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of gill tissue... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of skin surface... Dendromonocotyle ukuthena Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison, 2007
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape without defined loculi... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi... Dendromonocotyle ukuthena Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison, 2007
Monogenean ectoparasite No dendritic intestinal caecum... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Dendritic intestinal caecum... Dendromonocotyle ukuthena Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison, 2007

18(1).

Monogenean ectoparasite Skate host ... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Guitarfish host... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host... Dendromonocotyle lulwane Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison, 2007
Monogenean ectoparasite Very small or absent hamuli... Dendromonocotyle lulwane Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison, 2007
Monogenean ectoparasite Obvious or large/pronounced hamuli... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of gill tissue... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of skin surface... Dendromonocotyle lulwane Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison, 2007
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape without defined loculi... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi... Dendromonocotyle lulwane Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison, 2007
Monogenean ectoparasite No dendritic intestinal caecum... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Dendritic intestinal caecum... Dendromonocotyle lulwane Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison, 2007

19(1).

Monogenean ectoparasite Skate host ... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Guitarfish host... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host... Dendromonocotyle citrosa Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison, 2007
Monogenean ectoparasite Very small or absent hamuli... Dendromonocotyle citrosa Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison, 2007
Monogenean ectoparasite Obvious or large/pronounced hamuli... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of gill tissue... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Parasite of skin surface... Dendromonocotyle citrosa Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison, 2007
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape without defined loculi... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi... Dendromonocotyle citrosa Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison, 2007
Monogenean ectoparasite No dendritic intestinal caecum... Not a Dendromonocotylid
Monogenean ectoparasite Dendritic intestinal caecum... Dendromonocotyle citrosa Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison, 2007

DENDROMONOCOTYLE KEY

2007-03-18T20:51:00.000+02:00

Dendromonocotyle key using Delta programme (taxonomic nomenclature)

Introduction:

The Monocotylid genus Dendromonocotyle is presently made up of 16 valid and 1 undescribed (preliminarily described) species. Monogeneans are parasitic flatworms that infest a wide range of fish hosts in both freshwater and marine environments. The monocotylid monogeneans are specific parasites of chondrychthyan fishes and the genus Dendromonocotyle Hargis, 1955 is the only genus known to parasitise the skin surface of their stingray hosts. Other monocotylids are gill parasites. Dendromonocotyle species can be destinguished from most of the other monocotylids by the presence of a dendritic intestinal caecum, hence the name "Dendro," meaning "tree-like." Dendromonocotyle species are problematic parasites in public aquaria around the world. Recently an overview of the South African Dendromonocotyle species introduced three new species. The following text key is the HTML from the Delta programme designed by Dallwitz, Paine and Zurcher (2006) and gives a basic breakdown of the descriptors to discriminate each species.

Glossary of terms:

Distal = end (part)
Proximal = beginning (part)
Loculus/loculi (see descriptive image)
Sclerotised/sclerotisation (comprising sclerotin)
Caecum = gut
Hamulus/hamuli = primary anchors on the haptor
Haptor = attachment disk of worm (posterior end)
Marginal papilla/papillae (see descriptive image)
Terminal papillary sclerite = small hook on end of the marginal papillae
Tripartite sclerite = sclerite with three processes often found at the junction of radial and inner or outer ring septa
Sclerite = attachment "hook" within the haptor (different types)

Dendromonocotyle template with basic labels:

Implicit Attributes

Unlessindicated otherwise, the following attributes are implicit throughout the descriptions, except where the characters concerned are inapplicable.

Dendromonocotyle citrosa Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison, 2007

Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host, or Very small or absent hamuli, or Parasite of skin surface, or Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi, or Dendritic intestinal caecum. Marginal hooklets 14 Number. Humuli Absent. Distal portion of male copulatory organ Sperm duct is straight within distal portion of male copulatory organ. Marginal papillae Unknown, or 56 marginal papillae. Locular to papillae arrangement Anterior pair = 6, anterolateral and posterolateral pairs = 7, posterior pair = 8. Terminal papillary scelrite Two tooth like projections. Tripartite sclerites Unknown, orPresent at junction of inner-ring and radial septa only. Number of papillary sclerites Unknown, or 7 – 9. Ovary shape Unknown, or Ovoid. Vagina detail Unknown, or Proximal sclerotisation, or Bell-shaped sclerotised proximal portion. Host information Dasyatis chrysonota.

Dendromonocotyle lulwane Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison, 2007

Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host, or Very small or absent hamuli, or Parasite of skin surface, or Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi, or Dendritic intestinal caecum. Marginal hooklets 14 Number. Humuli Absent. Distal portion of male copulatory organ Sperm duct within distal portion of male copulatory organ appears to split and cross over itself once, terminally. Marginal papillae Unknown, or 56 marginal papillae. Locular to papillae arrangement Anterior pair = 6, anterolateral and posterolateral pairs =7, posterior pair = 8. Terminal papillary scelrite With delicate tanslucent cup-shaped projections. Tripartite sclerites Unknown, or Present at junction ofinner-ring and radial septa only. Number of papillary scelerites Unknown, or 7– 9. Ovary shape Unknown, or Bi-lobed. Vagina detail Unknown, or Proximal sclerotisation, or Criss-crossed proximal sclerotised portion. Host information Himantura gerrardi.

Dendromonocotyle colorni (South African population)

Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host, or Very small or absent hamuli, or Parasite of skin surface, or Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi, or Dendritic intestinal caecum. Marginal hooklets 14 Number. Humuli Present. Distal portion of male copulatory organ Distal portion of male copulatory organ with sclerotised accessory filament. Marginal papillae Unknown, or 56 marginal papillae. Locular to papillae arrangement Anterior pair = 6, anterolateral pair = 6, posterolateral pair = 8, posterior pair = 8. Terminal papillary scelrite Third process visible. Tripartite sclerites Unknown, or Present at junction of inner and outer-ring septa and radial septa. Number of papillary sclerites Unknown, or 3 – 4. Ovary shape Unknown, or Bi-lobed.Vagina detail Unknown, or Distinct coiled translucent duct present. Host information Himantura uarnak.

Dendromonocotyle colorni Chisholm, Whittington & Kearn, 2001 (Israel)

Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host, or Very small or absent hamuli, or Parasite of skin surface, or Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi, or Dendritic intestinal caecum. Marginal hooklets 14 Number. Humuli Present. Distal portion of male copulatory organ Distal portion of male copulatory organ with unsclerotised accessory filament. Marginal papillae Unknown, or 56 marginal papillae. Locular to papillae arrangement Anterior pair= 6, anterolateral pair = 6, posterolateral pair = 8, posterior pair = 8. Terminal papillary scelrite Third process visible. Tripartite sclerites Unknown, or Present at junction of inner-ring and radial septa only. Number of papillary sclerites Unknown, or 2 – 3. Ovary shape Unknown, or Bi-lobed. Vagina detail Unknown, or Distinct coiled translucent duct present. Host information Himantura uarnak.

Dendromonocotyle ukuthena Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison, 2007

Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host, or Very small or absent hamuli, or Parasite of skin surface, or Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi, or Dendritic intestinal caecum. Marginal hooklets 14 Number. Humuli Present. Distal portion of male copulatory organ Sperm duct within distal portion of male copulatory organ criss-crossed. Marginal papillae Unknown, or 56 marginal papillae. Locular to papillae arrangement Anterior pair = 6, anterolateral and posterolateral pairs = 7, posterior pair = 8. Terminal papillary scelrite Third process visible. Tripartite sclerites Unknown, or Present at junction of inner and outer-ring septa and radial septa. Number of papillary sclerites Unknown, or 5 – 6. Ovary shape Unknown, or Bi-lobed. Vagina detail Unknown, or Proximal sclerotisation, or Armed distal portion within chamber: Large sclerites present. Host information Himantura gerrardi, or Himantura uarnak.

Dendromonocotyle bradsmithi Chisholm, Glennon & Whittington, 2005

Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host, or Very small or absent hamuli, or Parasite of skin surface, or Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi, or Dendritic intestinal caecum. Marginal hooklets 14 Number. Humuli Absent. Distal portion of male copulatory organ Sperm duct within distal portion of male copulatory organ criss-crossed and has sclerotised accessory flange. Marginal papillae Unknown, or 56 marginal papillae. Locular to papillae arrangement Anterior pair = 6, anterolateral and posterolateral pairs = 7, posterior pair = 8. Terminal papillary scelrite Two processes (horn-like). Tripartite sclerites Unknown, or Present at junction of inner and outer-ring septa and radial septa. Number of papillary scelerites Unknown, or 6 – 8. Ovary shape Unknown, or Bi-lobed. Vagina detail Unknown, or Proximal sclerotisation. Host information Myliobatis australis.

Not a Dendromonocotylid

Monogenean ectoparasite Skate host, or Guitarfish host, or Obvious or large/pronounced hamuli, or Parasite of gill tissue, or Haptor round to oval shape without defined loculi, or No dendritic intestinal caecum. Marginal hooklets 16 Number. Marginal papillae Unknown. Tripartite sclerites Unknown. Number of papillary sclerites Unknown. Ovary shape Unknown. Vagina detail Unknown.

Dendromonocotyle lasti Chisholm and Whittington, 2004

Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host, or Very small or absent hamuli, or Parasite of skin surface, or Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi, or Dendritic intestinal caecum. Marginal hooklets 14 Number. Humuli Present. Distal portion of male copulatory organ Distal portion of male copulatory organ with coiled sclerotised filament. Muscular sheath with crown of sclerotised spines. Marginal papillae Unknown, or 38 marginal papillae. Locular to papillae arrangement Anterior pair = 4, anterolateral and posterolateral and posterior pair = 5. Terminal papillary scelrite Two processes (horn-like). Tripartite sclerites Unknown, or Absent. Number of papillary sclerites Unknown, or 3 – 4. Ovary shape Unknown, or Bi-lobed. Vagina detail Unknown, or Distal portion with thick muscular inner wall. Host information Himantura sp.

Dendromonocotyle centrourae Cheung & Whittaker, 1993

Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host, or Very small or absent hamuli, or Parasite of skin surface, or Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi, or Dendritic intestinal caecum. Marginal hooklets 14 Number. Humuli Absent. Distal portion of male copulatory organ Very short entire male copulatory organ length ending in a spout. Marginal papillae Unknown, or 56 marginal papillae. Locular to papillae arrangement Anterior pair = 6, anterolateral and posterolateral pairs = 7, posterior pair = 8. Terminal papillary scelrite Third process visible. Tripartite sclerites Unknown, or Present at junction of inner-ring and radial septa only. Number of papillary sclerites Unknown, or 6 – 8. Ovary shape Unknown, or Irregular. Vagina detail Unknown. Host information Dasyatis centroura.

Dendromonocotyle octodiscus Hargis, 1955

Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host, or Very small or absent hamuli, or Parasite of skin surface, or Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi, or Dendritic intestinal caecum. Marginal hooklets 14 Number. Humuli Absent. Distal portion of male copulatory organ Distal portion tapers to a point, has sclerotised projection, and is encircled by a spiral filament. Marginal papillae Unknown, or 56 marginal papillae. Locular to papillae arrangement Anterior pair = 6, anterolateral and posterolateral pairs = 7, posterior pair = 8. Terminal papillary scelrite Two processes (horn-like). Tripartite sclerites Unknown, or Present at junction of inner-ring and radial septa only. Number of papillary sclerites Unknown. Ovary shape Unknown, or Bi-lobed. Vagina detail Unknown, or Proximal sclerotisation, or Spherical bulb present. Host information Urolophus jamaicensis, or Dasyatis marmorata, or Dasyatis say.

Dendromonocotyle californica Olson & Jeffries, 1983

Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host, or Very small or absent hamuli, or Parasite of skin surface, or Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi, or Dendritic intestinal caecum. Marginal hooklets 14 Number. Humuli Present. Distal portion of male copulatory organ Distal portion of malec opulatoiry organ splits into two. Marginal papillae Unknown, or 56 marginal papillae. Locular to papillae arrangement Not all radial septa join the central loculus at the central septum, or Anterior pair = 6, anterolateral and posterolateral pairs = 7, posterior pair = 8. Terminal papillary scelrite Two processes (horn-like). Tripartite sclerites Unknown, or Absent. Number of papillary sclerites Unknown. Ovary shape Unknown, or Irregular. Vagina detail Unknown, or Proximal sclerotisation. Host information Myliobatis californica.

Dendromonocotyle ardea Chisholm & Whittington, 1995

Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host, or Very small or absent hamuli, or Parasite of skin surface, or Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi, or Dendritic intestinal caecum. Marginal hooklets 14 Number. Humuli Present. Distal portion of male copulatory organ Distal portion spiralling once distal to distinct flaring accessory filaments. Marginal papillae Unknown, or 42 marginal papillae. Locular to papillae arrangement Variable between left andright loculi. Terminal papillary scelrite Two processes (horn-like). Tripartite sclerites Unknown, or Absent. Number of papillary sclerites Unknown. Ovary shape Unknown, or Irregular. Vagina detail Unknown, or Proximal portion sclerotised, but distinctive with funnel shaped structure. Host information Pastinachus sephen.

Dendromonocotyle akajeii Ho & Perkins, 1980

Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host, or Very small or absent hamuli, or Parasite of skin surface, or Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi, or Dendritic intestinal caecum. Marginal hooklets 14 Number. Humuli Present. Distal portion of male copulatory organ Distal portion looping twice then narrowing to a point. Spiral accessary filament present. Marginal papillae Unknown, or 56 marginal papillae. Locular to papillae arrangement Anterior pair= 6, anterolateral and posterolateral pairs = 7, posterior pair = 8. Terminal papillary scelrite Two processes (horn-like). Tripartite sclerites Unknown. Number of papillary sclerites Unknown. Ovary shape Unknown. Vagina detail Unknown, or Sclerotised along its length, looping twice and narrowing proximally. Host information Dasyatis akajei.

Dendromonocotyle cortesi Bravo-Hollis, 1969

Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host, or Very small or absent hamuli, or Parasite of skin surface, or Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi, or Dendritic intestinal caecum. Marginal hooklets 14 Number. Humuli Absent. Distal portion of male copulatory organ Sperm duct within distal portion loops once before straightening. Marginal papillae Unknown, or 56 marginal papillae. Locular to papillae arrangement Anterior pair = 6, anterolateral and posterolateral pairs = 7, posterior pair = 8. Terminal papillary scelrite Two tooth like projections. Tripartite sclerites Unknown, or Absent. Number of papillary sclerites 5 – 7, or Unknown. Ovary shape Unknown, or Ovoid. Vagina detail Unknown, or Proximal sclerotisation. Host information Unknown.

Dendromonocotyle kuhlii Young, 1976

Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host, or Very small or absent hamuli, or Parasite of skin surface, or Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi, or Dendritic intestinal caecum. Marginal hooklets 14 Number. Humuli Absent. Distal portion of male copulatory organ Distal portion simple, narrowing to a point. not sclerotised. Marginal papillae Unknown, or 56 marginal papillae. Locular to papillae arrangement Anterior pair = 6, anterolateral and posterolateral pairs = 7, posterior pair = 8. Terminal papillary scelrite One process only, keyhole shaped. Tripartite sclerites Unknown. Number of papillary sclerites 2 only, or Unknown. Ovary shape Unknown, or Bi-lobed. Vagina detail Simple, straight, or Unknown. Host information Dasyatis kuhli.

Dendromonocotyle pipinna Chisholm & Whittington, 2004

Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host, or Very small or absent hamuli, or Parasite of skin surface, or Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi, or Dendritic intestinal caecum. Marginal hooklets 14 Number. Humuli Absent. Distal portion of male copulatory organ Male copulatory organ short. Distal portion with small sclerotised ridges. Marginal papillae Unknown, or 56 marginal papillae. Locular to papillae arrangement Anterior pair = 6, anterolateral and posterolateral pairs = 7, posterior pair = 8. Terminal papillary scelrite Two processes (horn-like). Tripartite sclerites Absent. Number of papillary sclerites 5 – 8, or Unknown. Ovary shape Tri-lobed, or Unknown. Vagina detail Narrow distal part inflating and narrowing again proximally, not sclerotised, or Unknown. Host information Taenuira meyeni.

Dendromonocotyle torosa Chisholm & Whittington, 2004

Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host, or Very small or absent hamuli, or Parasite of skin surface, or Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi, or Dendritic intestinal caecum. Marginal hooklets 14 Number. Humuli Absent. Distal portion of male copulatory organ Distal end inflated with thick sclerotised wall. Marginal papillae Unknown, or 56 marginal papillae. Locular to papillae arrangement Anterior pair = 6, anterolateral and posterolateral pairs =7, posterior pair = 8. Terminal papillary scelrite Two processes (horn-like). Tripartite sclerites Unknown, or Present at junction of inner-ring and radial septa only. Number of papillary sclerites 5 – 7, or Unknown. Ovary shape Unknown, or Bi-lobed. Vagina detail Small funnel-shaped sclerotised proximal section, or Unknown. Host information Aetobatus narinari.

Dendromonocotyle taeniurae Euzet & Maillard, 1967

Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host, or Very small or absent hamuli, or Parasite of skin surface, or Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi, or Dendritic intestinal caecum. Marginal hooklets 14 Number. Humuli Absent. Distal portion of male copulatory organ Distal portion of male copulatory organ widens before splitting in two. Marginal papillae Unknown, or 42 marginal papillae. Locular to papillae arrangement Variable between left and right loculi. Terminal papillary scelrite Two processes (horn-like). Tripartite sclerites Present at junction of inner and outer-ring septa and radial septa. Number of papillary sclerites 6 – 9. Ovary shape Unknown, or Bi-lobed.Vagina detail Sclerotised spines at entrance to vagina, or Sclerotised spines at the entrance to the vagina, Vagina widens slightly beforte narrowing proximally, or Unknown. Host information Taeniura grabata.

Dendromonocotyle sp. 1 Vaughan, Chisholm & Christison (undescribed)

Monogenean ectoparasite Stingray host, or Very small or absent hamuli, or Parasite of skin surface, or Haptor round to oval shape with 8 peripheral loculi, or Dendritic intestinal caecum. Marginal hooklets 14 Number. Humuli Present. Distal portion of male copulatory organ Sperm duct within distal portion of male copulatory organ criss-crossed. Marginal papillae 56 marginal papillae. Locular to papillae arrangement Anterior pair = 6, anterolateral and posterolateral pairs = 7, posterior pair = 8. Terminal papillary scelrite Third process visible. Tripartite sclerites Absent. Number of papillary scelerites 5– 6. Ovary shape Unknown, or Bi-lobed. Vagina detail Sclerotised spines at entrance to vagina, or Unknown. Host information Dasyatis chrysonota.

David Vaughan
Senior quarist, Quarantine
Two Oceans Aquarium
Cape Town, South Africa
+27 21 418 38 23
dvaughan@aquarium.co.za

Picture credits:

Chisholm, Glennon & Whittington 2005. Dendromonocotyle bradsmithi n. sp. (Monogenea: Monocotylidae) from the skin of Myliobatis australis (Elasmobranchii: Myliobatidae) off Adelaide and Perth, Australia: description of adult and larva. Zootaxa 951: 1 - 15.

Cite this publication as: ‘My_Authors (2000 onwards). ‘My_Title: Descriptions, Illustrations, Identification, and Information Retrieval. Version: 21st September 2000.

Amber provides a unique window into past organisms and ecosystems

2007-03-16T14:15:00.000+02:00

By Dane McDonald

The sight of fossilized amber, be it a photograph (Image 1) or the real object (not available!!), tends to captivate the viewer immediately. In spite of its beauty, amber provides unique insight into terrestrial forest paleoenvironments and also into micro- and macro-evolutionary processes [1].

Image 1. A Miocene, Nymphalid butterfly in Dominican amber [2]

Amber is the fossilized form of tree resin and has properties similar to amorphous (a solid that is not crystalline; Oxford dictionary of science, 2003) polymeric glass [1]. The fossilization of amber occurs due to polymerization (i.e. cross-linking of organic compounds with hydrogen bonds) of the tree resin [5], which consists of a complex mixture of terpenoid and/or phenolic compounds [1].

Fossil amber is derived from several different tree families of which the Pinaceae, Araucariaceae, and Leguminoseae are most common. [1,4]. Most of the ambers that subscribe to these families have a Miocene (25-14 mya) Dominican or Eocene (55-38 mya) Baltic origin [4]. There are also Saxon (Europe), Florrisant (Colorado, U.S.) and Lebanese ambers. The Baltic region contains approximately 80% of all amber deposits. Geological processes can explain the occurrence of this large deposit- an ancient river course (“Eridanus”) transported resin, still plastic and soft, into a delta [6]. This delta emptied out into an ancient sea basin called the ‘Tethys’. It is in this basin that the resin underwent much deposition and began its long metamorphosis into amber [6]. Most resin deposits would have been fossilized in a similar manner.

Due to the botanical, geographical, and age differences of amber deposits (especially Baltic versus Dominican), researchers have questioned whether comparisons of amber palaeoecosystem structures are possible [4]. With this question in mind, Penney and Langan (2006) analyzed the size distribution of 671 fossilized spider species preserved in Dominican and Baltic ambers to determine whether amber-forming resins trapped organisms in a uniform manner. They found that Baltic amber generally contained larger arboreal web-spinning spiders. This however, had nothing to do with the amber’s differing properties. They concluded that the greater structural complexity of the Baltic amber-producing trees compared to the Dominican amber producers, favoured larger aerial web-spinning spiders. Thus no resin-entrapment biases were evident. Furthermore it follows that Baltic and Dominican amber forests are directly comparable in this respect [4].

Besides the fact that there may be differences between fossil ambers (as shown above these are proving to be irrelevant in comparisons), they are collectively unique in the sense that they ‘capture’ fossil organisms, especially terrestrial arthropods, in a manner that reproduces their ancient ecological interactions (Image 2). This is shown by ‘syninclusions’ where interactions between two or more organisms are preserved in the same piece of amber. These fossil ambers preserve interactions such as mating, mate guarding, parasitism, commensalism, disease, egg laying, defecation, and maternal care (E.g. ants carrying larvae and pupae) [1]. Similar observations are seldom, if ever, seen in the non-amber fossil record due to differing taphonomic processes that control preservation in different mediums (E.g. carbonate rocks vs. amber) [1].

Image 2. A group of winged ants interacting in Dominican amber [1]

Taphonomy can be defined as the study of decaying organisms over time [7]. It enables a better understanding of biases present in the fossil record. Biases are evident when a fossil assemblage contains more of one type of fossil than another [7]. This can be observed in amber, which has an affinity for preserving insects, spiders, and other terrestrial arthropods [1]. As a result one can either infer that the organism was present in greater numbers, or that its remains are more resistant to decomposition [7].

The preferential fossilization of terrestrial arthropods, especially insects, is extremely important for a variety of palaeontological reasons. According to Reaka-Kudla et al (1997) this is the most dominant and important group (besides humans) that affect life on earth. Furthermore insects and their relatives live on all continents and occupy a variety of microhabitats (E.g. deep soil, tree-tops). It follows that arthropods, as a result of their pervasiveness, play an integral role in life within ecosystems (pollination, nutrient cycling, and population control) (Reaka-Kudla et al, 1997). These important roles are not just evident in recent time but would have been very important during our geologic past. It is important to note that a profusion of insects in amber could explain a benign environment across many habitats and vast geographical areas in the past (i.e. benign in a sense of plenty water and moderate climate) [8].

Although amber-preserved arthropods play a very important role in understanding the past, other amber-preserved organisms also have much to contribute. Bauer et al (2005) described an early Eocene gecko from Baltic amber that had important implications for understanding the evolution of adhesion in climbing geckos. A study by Schmidt et al (2004) identified four new amoebae taxa in Cenomanian (i.e. late Cretaceous, approximately 100 mya) amber from Schliersee (Southern Germany). They went further and explained that “…the presence of 100-mya-year old fossils with extant representatives suggests evolutionary stasis of these freshwater amoebae”.

Image 3. An early Eocene gecko in Baltic amber [9]

In addition to the excellent preservation afforded [2], fossilized amber has the potential to make a significant contribution to contemporary research areas such as global climate change [1]. In analyzing palaeontological evidence from the amber fossil record scientists will be able to infer the patterns of past climate changes. This should help in predicting “…the potential consequences of climate change resulting from similar processes, in addition to the influence of anthropogenic factors”[1].

There is also the possibility, albeit remote, for the extraction of viable ancient DNA [3]. The debate of whether geologically ancient DNA exists or not, remains highly contentious. This is because previous claims have not been verified by independent replication, which is an important criterion in authenticity [3]. A rigorous study by Austin et al (1997) in which they attempted to reproduce DNA sequences from amber- and copal-preserved bees and flies failed to produce any authentic ancient insect DNA. This lack of reproducibility suggested that DNA could not survive over millions of years even in amber, which seems to be the most promising fossil environments.

In conclusion it is relatively clear that fossil amber has made and will continue to make an important contribution to the reconstruction of past biodiversity.

References:

1] Penney, D (2006) Fossils in amber: unlocking the secrets of the past. Biologist, 53#5:247-251

2] Penalver E, Grimaldi DA (2006) New Data on Miocene Butterflies in Dominican
Amber (Lepidoptera: Riodinidae and Nymphalidae) with the Description of a New Nymphalid. American Museum of Natural History, #3519.

3] Austin JJ, Ross AJ, Fortey RA, Richard TH (1997) Problems of reproducibility–does geologically ancient DNA survive in amber-preserved insects? Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 264:467-474

4] Penney D, Langan A (2006) Comparing amber fossil assemblages across the Cenozoic. Biology Letters, The Royal Society.

5] http://www.fossilmall.com/Stonerelic/amber/Fossil_Amber.htm

6] http://www.gplatt.demon.co.uk/baltic.htm

7] Wikipedia contributions: http://www.en.wikipedia.org/

8]http://jrscience.wcp.muohio.edu/fieldcourses03/PapersCostaRicaArticles/ComparativeAnalysisofInse.html

9] Bauer AM, Bohme W, Weitschat W (2005) An Early Eocene gecko from Baltic amber and its implications for the evolution of gecko adhesion. Journal of Zoology, London 265: 327-332

10] http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/11/04/041108021411.htm

11] Reaka-Kudla ML, Wilson DE, Wilson EO (1997) Biodiversity II: Understanding and Protecting Our Biological Resources. Joseph Hendry Press, 560 pp. ISBN: 0-309-520754

PAST AND FUTURE BEQUEST VALUE IN BIODIVERSITY

2007-03-15T09:30:00.000+02:00

Abstract (Powerpoint)

The importance of museums and storing information about past and present biodiversity is an idea introduced as a result of the beginning of the classification of animals and plants by Aristotle in Greece. Aristotle separated the plants from the animals and then the animals into three groups, those from land, sea and air. This system although incorrect, became the first predecessor of what is known as a classification system, without which taxonomy and recording of related taxa using hierarchical structure could arguably be in a more primitive state. For the first time, through classification systems and the beginnings of scientific writings of zoology and botany, literary text could now document and contribute to human knowledge of animals and plants albeit with anthropocentric bias. Today we build on this legacy of bequest value through the improvement of technology, which allows for more detailed information to be stored and accessed. Through the discovery of new animals and plants and the study of their biology, medical advancements and new technologies could provide solutions for present and future problems.

David Vaughan

Senior aquarist, Quarantine

Two Oceans Aquarium

Cape Town, South Africa

+27 21 418 38 23

dvaughan@aquarium.co.za

IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT RESTIONACEAE

2007-03-14T17:59:00.000+02:00

The family Restionaceae is part of an important and defining element in Fynbos i.e. restiods, the other two elements include: ericoid and proteoid. This family dominates in the Western Cape, 341 of the 350 species are found in this region and in the Cape Floral Region it dominates in the South Western Mountains (207), Northern Mountains (139) and in the Cape Peninsula (107). The bedrock on which they occur include: Table Mountain Sandstone, acid coastal and shale.

Their main plant form is tufted but other plant forms are also observed such as: clumped, mat forming and tangled. Most Restionaceae species have a compact base type without rhizomes or stolons (211), although rhizomes (100) and stolons (77) are present in some species. Majority of these plants reach 1 m in height. Fire plays an important role in Fynbos and plants that belong to this biome are readily exposed to this harsh yet essential disturbance. These plants have therefore adapted to fire by either resprouting or reseeding after fires. Dispersal methods include winged seeds,dispersal by wind, or some seeds contain elaiosomes (a lipid) that attract ants.

This family also has some economic uses; some species are used for thatching, horticulture and grazing. Fortunately most of this family is not threatened although some species are classified as rare and a minority (8) is classified as endangered.

RESTIONACEAE

2007-03-14T12:48:00.000+02:00

Extracted from Delta data base

The family Restionaceae is a fundamental family within the Cape Fynbos. Members of the family are usually characterized as a reed-like shrub, growing mainly on table mountain sandstones and acid coastal sand. Out of the 350 species in the family, 23 species occur on nutrient rich granites, 21 species are found on shale, 15 species occur on limestone and 8 taxa occur on alkaline sands. These shrubs are predominantly about 1 m in length; however species such as Cannomois grandis may reach lengths up to 5 m. The predominant growth form is tufted, while 22 % are clumped, others are mat forming or tangled and a mere 3 % form isolated shoots. Most species acquire nutrients from low nutrient soils via horizontal rhizomes which are 2- 12 mm in diameter. Some species have stolons or compact root systems without rhizomes or stolons. Members of Restionaceae differ from other Fynbos families in that the leaves are completely reduced to a leaf sheath surrounding the stem. Hence the stem is photosynthetic.

Restionaceae is mainly distributed in the Western Cape, Northern Cape, Eastern Cape of South Africa, as well as parts of Malawi. Main dispersal mechanisms include nuts containing the ovary with seeds. These nuts are normally brown, black or tan and are elliptic in cross section.

These plants are not suitable for grazing; however some may be used for thatching or in horticulture. Compared to other families, 6 % of Restionaceae species are vulnerable, 2.3 % are endangered and 15 % are rare. Willdenowia affinis is the only species that I could find that have gone extinct within Restionaceae.

Fire plays a major role in Fynbos growth and management; hence members of this family generally show fire resistance by being either re-sprouters or re-seeders. In addition, some members of Restionaceae make use of fire smoke as cue for seed germination. Seeds can subsequently fully exploit nutrients re-generated by a passing fire. The intensity, frequency and duration of fire play a pivotal role in Fynbos management.

CHAPTER 2 PART A IS NOW UP

2007-03-14T11:40:00.000+02:00

The first section of Chapter 2: Exploring Biodiversity is now up. The attached notes will still need some work, but the PowerPoint is complete but does not have Sound.

This explores the Deutrostomes and includes all the groups except the Chordates which will make up the second part.

Cheers

Rich

A simple comparison between a Madagascan and a typical Cape Flats species (within the context of the Gondwanan split)

2007-03-13T12:42:00.000+02:00

The Restionaceae family enjoys wide distribution in South Africa and is more restricted on the larger African continent. The current distribution appears to have underlying gondwanan origins (Linder et al, 2003). Linder et al (2003) further suggests that west Gondwana (Africa, South America) separated from east Gondwana (Australia, Antarctica, Madagascar, India) approximately 180-150 million years ago in the Jurassic. Therefore the restio species of Madagascar have been (to a large extent) evolving separately from those extant on the African mainland for more than 150 million years. Below are some differences between a South African Cape floristic species (Thamnocortus spicigerus) and one of only two species found on the island of Madagascar (Restio mahonii ssp. mahonii). The sketching of these differences aim to show that they have evolved considerably different mechanisms for survival in different habitats.

Restio mahonii ssp. mahonii

Altitude: 1500-3000m
Habitat: marshy and found in shallow soils over rock
Bedrock: granite
Root structure: stolons
Smoke effect on seed germination: unknown

Thamnochortus spicigerus

Altitude: 0-50m
Habitat: Well-drained, deep coastal sands
Bedrock: alkaline coastal sands
Root structure: rhizome
Smoke effect on seed germination: significantly increases germination

RESTIOS IN PEACE...

2007-03-13T12:23:00.000+02:00

For this mini-assignment, I narrowed in on two genera of Restios, namely Mastersiella and Rhodocoma, each represented by a single species on the Cape peninsula (Cape Point area). I was most interested to discover that of the 350 known taxa that make up the Restios, 107 of them are found on the Cape peninsula, that's just over 30% of all taxa! Only the genera Mastersiella and Rhodocoma out of all the other genera that are encountered sympatrically, are represented by a single species. I wondered why...

This is Mastersiella digitata:

Mastersiella digitata is typically 0.2 - 0.7m tall and does not have spreading rhizomes, therefore it is also vulnerable to fire and will not resprout after a fire event. The distinguishing characteristic of this species from the other species within the genus is shape of the cone-like spikelet of the male flower, which are also reflexed. This species is distributed along coastal mountains from 20m - 50m above sea-level, so it is generally a low-altitude species. Its seeds are dispersed by ants who make use of the elaiosome through a mutually beneficial relationship which sees the role of the ant as the "seed planter."

Mastersiella purpurea (named after its purple colour) has a different growth form to M. digitata. M. purpurea is typically erect, while M. digitata is short and tufted. Mastersiella purpurea is also taller and grows to 0.5m - 1.5m tall. Mastersiella purpurea seed dispersal strategy is the same as M. digitata, as is its vulnerability to fire, but M. purpurea is found at a higher altitude range of 300 - 1600m above sea-level. Mastersiella purpurea is not found on the Cape peninsula.

Mastersiella spathulata (named after its shape, similar to that of a spoon) is similar in height to M. digitata at 0.2m - 0.6m tall, and is also tufted, not erect. It is found commonly on acid coastal sand as far East as Bredasdorp. It also has a wide altitude range of 50m - 1900m above sea-level. This species however is also not found on the Cape Peninsula.

WHY?

Interestingly, there are a few factors which seem to be important in the distribution of these three species above. The reason why M. digitata is found solely on the Cape Peninsula is linked to the soil-type and winter rainfall. Low altitudes also suggest that M. digitata is more resistant to salt spray from the waves which pound both sides of the Cape Peninsula, and their shorter growth form is probably more efficient in this wind-swept region, which could probably cause damage to taller forms. Mastersiella purpurae is found mostly in the Southern Cape where the area receives Summer rainfall, and at the altitude above 300m, it is placed away from salt spray of the sea and possibly within the mist-belt of the Cape folded mountains which would also provide a higher intensity of year-round precipitation. The taller growth form possibly suggests that wind is not an important factor. Mastersiella spathulata is the most common of the three species and can adapt to a variety of areas. It also prefers slightly wetter climates, but has adapted to drier environments. This species prefers acid coastal sands, which is probably why it is not found on the Cape Peninsula, since its altitude range suggests that it could possibly live here.

A common and very interesting factor between all three species is that the seed dispersal agents (ants) must be extremely diverse and capable of making use of a variety of climatic conditions and environments from low coastal altitudes to alpine heights at the tops of mountains. Ants are extremely successful.

This is Rhodocoma fruticosa:

Rhodocoma fruticosa is 0.4m - 0.8m tall, and grows almost exclusively on cave sandstone substrate. It gows at altitudes of 200m - 1600m above sea-level and is the most widespread of all the Restios in South Africa. It has adapted to live in both Winter rainfall regions as well as Summer rainfall regions. In Winter rainfall regions it is commonly associated with dry Fynbos at the lower altitudes. Rhizomes are present and it can therefore regenrate after a fire event. The seeds of R. fruticosa are "seed surface type" and are not dispersed by ants. The seeds therefore do not possess elaiosomes.

I believe that the only reason why R. fruticosa is the sole representative of the genus from the Cape Peninsula, is because it is the most likely of all the species within the genus to survive there. This must suggest that the Cape Peninsula is either a very specific habitat, or a very harsh environment that restricts the successful recruitment of other species within the genus. Rhodocoma fruticosa is the most common species in the genus and therefore must have adapted to a wide variety of different climates, possibly predisposing it to the conditions on the Cape Peninsula as a survival advantage or adaptation over its related species. Its seed dispersal agent must also be present on the Cape Peninsula.

For both genera, although much work is missing regarding the role of fire in germination of seeds, it seems as though Restios with rhizomes, which are adapted to resprouting after a fire-event, produce either wind-dispersed or larger-animal dispersed seeds (birds?), while those which are killed off by fire because they cannot regenerate, produce hard, woody seeds which are taken underground by a large variety of different ant species whose home is the Fynbos area. In times of fire, the ants would be protected underground as would the seeds of the Restios which they took down with them, and maybe the behaviour of the ant species after a fire, such as nest relocation, or other response to the fire-event, could play an important link in the success and germination of the seeds to support the next generation of these Restios.

All of this from a key...

Cheers

David Vaughan
Senior aquarist, Quarantine
Two Oceans Aquarium
Cape Town, South Africa
+27 21 418 38 23
dvaugan@aquarium.co.za

Image credits:

Mastersiella digitata: Image from Fernkloof Nature Reserve: http://fernkloof.com/species.mv?754 (accessed 12:47; 13 March 2007).

Rhodocoma fruticosa: http://www.wonderlingsbandb.com/restio.htm (accessed 13:47, 13 March 2007.)

RESTIONACEAE - THE ONLY GRAMINOIDS THE DINOSUARS MIGHT HAVE SEEN!

2007-03-13T11:38:00.000+02:00

Restionaceae are one of the three commonly referred to elements of the Cape Floral Kingdom. They are all perrenial, evergreen and have a grass-like form and all have reduced leaves (only sheaths) and the stems are the site for photosynthesis. Sexes are on separate plants (dioecious), and their flowers are usually small and wind pollinated. The seed of restios are small seeds, nut(winged or non-winged)and a significant number possess an elaiosome for dispersal by ants. The Family Restionaceae is represented most dominantly in South Africa (350 species, subspecies and varieties) and Australia (ca. 150 species). New Zealand has four species and South America has one species. There is only one representative north of the equator and is wide spread in South East Asia. Restios are becoming increasingly popular world-wide in the horticultural industry since they are tough, virtually maintenance free and have slightly unsual decorative value (visit Willowbridge Shopping Malls/Tyger Valley Waterfront) to see en-mass landscaping).

Restionaceae Origins

The Cape Floristic Region is the real heartland of the Restio family, where they dominant much of the landscape. Their origins appear to date back to the Cretaceous (60 million years ago)- so they were around well before grasses and sedges made their appearance. Possibly there were the only grass-like angiosperms that lived when the last dinosaurs were around – but they would not have attempted to eat them. There are few plants, if any as inedible as restios (that’s why horticulturalists like them), and really only specialized insects can make a living on restio salad. The Restio Leafhopper (Cepalelus) is one highly adapted insect that is present in large numbers on the Restios in the Dog-Leg section of the UWC Campus where the University Admin propose to build the new Life Sciences Centre (see my posting). It is generally accepted that restio have an ancient Gondwana origin and is based on some fossil pollen records. This would explain their presence from South America to New Zealand when the land masses had not broken up and the group had already radiated into each of the future regions of the southern hemisphere. An alternative hypothesis for their distribution across all southern land masses is that the family crossed the Pacific Ocean only relatively recently (30 million years ago) leading to the establishment of the sole South American representative which is closely related to a species from New Zealand.

Restionaceae in Africa

In Africa there are some 350 taxa, but they are overwhelmingly concentrated in the Western Cape (341 taxa) with Eastern Cape and Northern Cape having 47 and 35 taxa each. The Northern Province and Kwazulu Natal have 10 and 6 taxa respectively. There is one taxa each in Lesotho, Mapumalanga and Zimbabwe and two taxa in Malawi and Madagascar.

Restionaceae: Habitat preference

The majority of Restios occur on Table Mountain Sandstone (302 taxa), with a further 42 taxa found on the acid coastal sands. A further 23 and 21 taxa are found on the more nutrient –rich granites and shales respectively. Limestones and alkaline sands have only 15 and 8 representatives. Consequently restios generally most speciose on nutrient poor and acidic conditions such as occurs in our Mountain Fynbos vegetation.

Restionaceae: Fire adaptations

Since fire is an important form of disturbance in Fynbos communities, restio are fire adapted with virtually equal representation (122 and 123 taxa) in coppice regeneration and by seed (where the parent plants are killed). There is only one species that appears not to be fire-adapted Thamnochortus spicigerus which the parent plants are killed by fire and there is poor regeneration from seed. There appears to be little information on germination cues but some eight taxa postively responded to the influence of fire smoke.

Restionaceae: Seed dispersal

Some Restionaceae have relatively simple seeds contained in capsules which splits to release them. The seed size is typically 1-2 mm. In other species a single seed is formed to produce a nut with a variaety of dispersal methods ranging from winged seeds to possessing an elaiosome for dispersal by ants. Even the colour of the elaiosome is white, green or olivaceous. In some species the nut can become quite large (>11 mm) as can the elaiosome (10 mm).

Restionaceae: Growth forms

In growth form most restios are tufted, but sprawling and grass –like forms also exists Less than a third (100 taxa) of Restios appear to have a rhizome and some 77 have a stolon. About 211 restios are without rhizomes or stolons. Restios generally range in size from about 100 mm to the largest forms that are almost 3 m in height.

Restionaceae: Economic value

In terms of economic value, their most important use would be for the thatching industry where nine species are commonly used (Cannomois, Thamnochortus and Willdenowia). Thamnochortus insignis is especially abundant and used in the Bredasdorp area. At least 39 taxa are used in the horticulture industry from the UK to California with Cannomois, Elegia, Ischyrolepis, Restio and Thamnochortus being the most popular. Virtually no restio have economic value for grazing. Although there are no records of restios becoming invasive outside of their home country (I checked using Google Search and various Invasive Alien Species checklists), Thamnochortus insignis populations have established all around Hermanus and where it was introduced as thatch material for roof construction.

Restionaceae Conservation

Since Mountain Fynbos is relatively well conserved most members (256 taxa) are not threatened. Only one species of restio is know to have become extinct Willdenowia affinis) with only eight taxa endangered, 21 vulnerable and 53 considered to be rare.

Links

http://www.dicksonia.com/index.php?id=430

Additional Notes

I have illustrated what can be extracted within 15 minutes of use of Peter Linders’s The African Restionaceae Delta Database vs 2. July 2002. It took about 60 minutes to write this posting. In class you were provided with more than this time. You can either post your own description of the Restionaceae or post comments on this article indicating gaps and other useful information. The intention was to make you think about what features are useful in developing a taxonomic key – it was NOT meant as another exercise. Please remember the external’s evaluation of your work is based mostly on how you have contributed to our Course Blog.

USEFUL BIT OF HTML

2007-03-10T08:04:00.002+02:00

Hi everyone

I managed to use both "justified" and "centred" text within the framework of one posting using the following piece of Html code placed before each piece of text or heading which I wanted to manipulate (you will need to remove the colon I placed above each bracket ('<','>') which I needed to put in to be able to publish this post without the code being activated):

'<'div align="center"'>' '<'div align="center"'>''<'/div'>'

For "justified" text just change the word "center" with "justify."

I hope this is useful to all ye bloggers!

Cheers

David Vaughan

Senior aquarist, Quarantine

Two Oceans Aquarium

Cape Town, South Africa

+27 21 418 38 23

dvaughan@aquarium.co.za

RECONSTRUCTION OF PAST BIODIVERSITY

2007-03-09T23:07:00.005+02:00

BACK TO THE FUTURE...

Reconstruction of past biodiversity is a vast subject with many facets. Most people if asked about how past ecosystems and organisms are reconstructed, will think of fossils as the most prominent examples. Maybe fossils are the most prominent…in our sequacious understanding, but lets take a closer look at the concept and delve into some rather surprising discoveries.

The fossil record is known to have both a biotic and an abiotic signature (Benton 2003), which basically means that the fossil record consists of both the parts that made up the living aspect, and those inert parts including the processes involved before and during fossilisation. Benton (2003) indicates that it has been argued that the distribution of the sedimentary rocks layers is actually responsible for fossil preservation and therefore the information interpreted from fossil diversification and extinctions is only that of artefacts. So, is the reconstruction of past biodiversity based on fossils alone as accurate as we would like to believe? Maybe fossils should just be seen as a piece of an ancient puzzle that merely states “I was here…”But there is more if you take a deeper look at the rest of the puzzle.

An interesting yet somewhat difficult to interpret paper on Peatlands as scientific archives of past biodiversity by Barber (1993) introduces peat bogs as sensitive investments of history. Peat bogs support a highly specialised fauna and flora and locked within them is evidence of the local environmental history from what is known as the Holocene epoch (Scott, Oxford & Selden 2006), which is present-day to about 10 000 years ago (Wikipedia contributors). Commonly, peat bogs are best known for their preservation of pollen which fell from various trees that surrounded the areas over thousands of years, and fossils of many different kinds of invertebrates (Scott, Oxford & Selden 2006). With the knowledge of past fauna and flora, an indication of the type of climate can be made, as well as the availability of water in past environments (Scott, Oxford & Selden 2006). According to Barber (1993), the characterisation and the detection of tephra (the volcanic ash record) not only can be used as time markers because of their obvious nature in position and time, but as confirmation of specific volcanic eruptions that are often reflected as narrow growth rings of trees as a result of the dust veil produced by the eruption and its effect on sunlight reduction, reducing subsequent annual tree growth. The detection of Tephra deposits in peat bogs in Ireland has linked the decline of pine forests in Scotland 4000 years ago to eruptions from volcanoes in Iceland (Barber 1993). The research being done hopes to provide information on the extent of the past forests which once covered large portions of Ireland and Scotland, and the conservation value of the Flow Country in Northern Scotland (Barber 1993). Did you know that we have our own peatlands here in South Africa? According to Peatlands Around The World (have a look at the following webpage supplied: http://www.ipcc.ie/wptourhome1.html), South African peatlands are quite rare. Examples of two peatlands as indicated by this website are the salt marshes at Langebaan National Park (image 1), and the wetlands at the Ramsar site at Baberspan (image 2).

Image 1. Salt marshes at Langebaan.

Image 2. Wetland, Baberpan.

Peat bogs also indicate that their present ecology is not necessarily an accurate portrayal of their ecological history (Barber 1993). The dominant species of peat moss itself is a clue to a changing biodiversity. Sphagnum imbricatum in some bogs is completely replaced by a different species S. magellanicum after the most recent glacial period, therefore indicating a change in the dependant species and indeed the change in climate and availability of water at that time (Barber 1993). A change in the most dominant species such as the Sphagnum spp. has dramatic repercussions for species which use it within the framework of their own existence.

Image 3. Sphagnum peat moss.

Similar to the effects of climate on growth rings of trees is the determination of palaeo-climate by researching the changes in the environment using speleotherms (King, Williams & Salinger 2004). Speleotherms are limestone deposits which are created by calcite, forming stalactites and stalagmites. Researchers can determine changes in climate by the rate at which the rings, which make up the speleotherms, are laid down (King, Williams & Salinger 2004). This depends on the amount and rate at which rainwater enters the cave where the speleotherms are found, the acidity and amount of dissolved minerals in the rainwater, and the temperature and humidity in the cave at that time. In periods of drought, narrow rings or no rings at all are formed (King, Williams & Salinger 2004).

Image 4. Speleotherm

References:

Barber K. E. 1993. Peatlands as scientific archives of past biodiversity. Biodiversity and Conservation 2: 474 – 489.

Benton M. J. 2003. The quality of the fossil record. Manuscript no. TTECO4 pp.66-90.

King D., Williams P., Salinger J. 2004. Reconstructing past environmental changes using speleotherms. Water and Atmosphere 12(2): 14 – 15.

Scott. A. G., Oxford G. S., Selden P. A. 2006. Epigeic spiders as ecological indicators of conservation value for peat bogs. Biological Conservation 127: 420 – 428.

Wikipedia contributors. Holocene [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2007 Mar 1, 21:03 UTC [cited 2007 Mar 9]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Holocene&oldid=111911925.

Image credits:

Peatlands Around The World: http://www.ipcc.ie/wptourhome1.html accessed 9/3/07, 22:51.

Speleotherm: http://classes.yale.edu, accessed 9/3/07, 22:57

Wikipedia contributors. Sphagnum [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2007 Mar 8, 14:18 UTC [cited 2007 Mar 9]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sphagnum&oldid=113574258.

David Vaughan
Senior aquarist, Quarantine
Two Oceans Aquarium
Cape Town, South Africa
+27 21 418 38 23
dvaughan@aquarium.co.za

Reconstructing Biodiversity

2007-03-09T10:15:00.000+02:00

Goodday fellow bloggers!

I'd would like to know where to find information for the "Reconstructing Biodiversity" webblog contributions....Please let me in on any clues!

thanx
Dane

BIODIVERSITY PRESENTATIONS

2007-03-08T16:11:00.000+02:00

Hi All UWC students doing this course.

As promised, here are the Ten Topics for preparation of your PowerPoint Presentation.

General Instructions

You must use the prescribed template and ensure the PowerPoint Presentation is correctly formatted with respect to colour, fonts, and animation. The template is downloadable from the following site and contains instructions within the presentation itself. You will be expected to add sound to your presentation – I will show you how to do this in class. You can find the template here.

There is a variety of reasons for using a template. These are: learning to use all of PowerPoint's functionality; learning to follow instructions (very important when preparing a manuscript for submission to a scientific journal); and, finally, so the assessors can judge your content more fairly in relation to your classmates. This final point removes some of the subjectivity of marking a Power Point Presentation and allows the quality of the work to be assessed rather than the attractiveness of the presentation. A final consideration is that, if we like your material, we will present it to future students – so it fits with the rest of the look and feel of the course material. In this way we can instruct by example through peer to peer interaction. It is important that you add notes for each slide and keep each slide uncluttered. Avoid fancy annotations which are slow to load. The text should be annotated using blinds and images should dissolve in. Text should fade when the next text comes in. and still to bringing in and fading of the text,

How do I book a topic?

We have already decided on topics in class, but please confirm your selection by attaching a comment to this posting with your name and the selected topic. Once one person books a topic, that topic is no longer available for booking. In this way we ensure each person’s work contributes uniquely to the course. It is a “first come first serve” policy – so if you are quick you will get more choice. It also ensures that everyone gets their Blogger accounts up early in the course. Since some topics are likely to be more difficult than others, we do give extra marks if we think the topic is one that required more effort to research. Before completing the PowerPoint you will need to get the abstract checked for comments by posting on this Blog.

Where do I get references?

You will need to go through some of the references provided in the bibliography of the online lectures. I have uploaded some reference material in the following folder found here

Otherwise you will need to use our Library’s online journals and the Internet. Some of your references (at least three) must be peer-reviewed journal articles or fully referred Scientific Reports. Wikipedia articles do not count, although there is some review in their preparation. In line with the practice at most higher education institutions we discourage use of general Internet and Encyclopedia references. Such references are not adequately reviewed and therefore not sufficiently scientifically rigourous.

How will I be assessed?

You can download the rubric for assessment from here

At least two people will assess your presentation.

List of Topics discussed in Class

1) Global Biodiversity Hotspots
Describe the development of the concept of a biodiversity hotspot, its expansion from the original regions, reasons why hotspots are located mostly in tropical areas, distribution of rare species in global hotspots, threats to hotspots and approaches to their conservation.

2) Global Ecoregion Analysis
Undertake an analysis of the “Eco-regions” concept as a tool for analysis and assessment of biodiversity and its management. Which Eco-regions are most at risk for loss of biodiversity? In this presentation you will need to undertake an analytical approach and provide some generalizations for assessment of the biodiversity on our planet.

3) Quantifying Biodiversity
Estimates of how much biodiversity there is range considerably. There is also considerable debate about the calculation of such estimates. Discuss the various methods that have been used to estimate both global and local biodiversity, the limitations of the data derived from these approaches, and which places in the world we can more reliably gauge the amount of biodiversity (and why?). Discuss how corrections and different techniques might be applied to improve the accuracy of biodiversity estimates. Also discuss how this might influence our estimates of the extent of the loss we are currently experiencing in biodiversity.

4) Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
Ecosystem services are defined as processes that operate in the natural environment to produces resources that are useful to society (economically and culturally). Examples of ecosytem services include: supplying society with clean water and air; control and mitigation of flooding; maintaining pollination services for agriculture; control/mitigation of pests and diseases; and carbon sequestration. The aesthetic, cultural and ethical values of biodiversity are also considered part of ecosystem services. This has led to the realization that ecosystems provide economic benefits that promote development and therefore are described as “natural capital”. Your presentation should define what ecosystem services are and why in terms of economic markets they are considered to be “externalities” that are not considered. Consequently economic profit is often at the expense of maintaining ecosystem services, leading to unsustainable development and biodiversity loss. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment of 2005 reported that 60% of ecosystem services are being used unsustainably with inevitable degradation. These documents would be a good starting point for researching this topic.

5) Biodiversity and Meta-populations
A meta-population is defined as geographically isolated populations of the same species that are still able to interact at some level. Richard Levins in 1969 defined the term meta-population when modelling population dynamics of agricultural insect pests. Meta-population concept has been applied to species in both naturally and artificially fragmented landscapes. A meta-population usually consists of distinct populations within a matrix of suitable habitats that are unoccupied. The natural population cycles in each meta-population are relatively independent and will usually become extinct due to fluctuations of absolute population size, fecundity, and environmental conditions. Meta-populations have finite life-spans, and the population is most often stable since immigrants from another population will balance emigration and other individual losses. Immigration into a small/declining may often rescue the entire meta-population from extinction. Meta-population theory together with source-sink dynamics emphasize the importance of connectivity between isolated populations and is usually applied in conservation of biological diversity and this should be the focus of this presentation.

6) Biodiversity collections and information systems
Since the Rio Summit and Chapter 40 of Agenda 21 information systems for biodiversity have become prominent and indispensable. Much of the mandate of IUCN is based on providing up to date data on biodiversity and conservation status world-wide. This has been (or is) complemented by the increasing data banks of genetic information. This ensures that biodiversity information is reflected from genetics to landscapes. The development of information systems should not be at the expense of maintaining biological collections such as housed at museums and herbaria. Indeed these should be complemented with live material collection (KEW). Zoological and Botanical gardens are also important in reducing the risk of species extinction and contribute to biodiversity conservation. In this presentation you will be expected to analyse the development of biological information systems and how they are backed by collection data that date back to the ancient Greeks.

7) Anthropocene (Sixth Extinction)
The Anthropocene is a term coined by Paul Crutzen, a Nobel Prize winning scientist, to describe the significant global impacts that human society has had in the last 200 years which may be so profound as to represent a new geological era. Levels of greenhouse gases (e.g. carbon dioxide, methane, etc.) during this period appear to be inceasing faster than at any previous time in the earth’s history. The combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas), increasing animal husbandry, deforestation and increased forest fires plus other activities like cement production and disposal of waste are thought to be factors in promoting climate change. The net effect of this is a loss of species that parallels previous upheavals in the Earth’s geological period. Discuss the validity of the term Anthropocene and Sixth Extinction using case studies to support your arguments.

8) Biodiversity and Climate Change
There are numerous indications that the Earth is warming at an alarming rate. Such evidence includes the melting of glaciers, the thawing of the permafrost and the thinning and break-up of the ice sheets at the North and South Pole. While we are not certain that all of this warming is an entirely anthropogenic result, there is direct evidence that it is having an impact on biodiversity. Such impacts include bleaching of the coral reefs, disrupted breeding cycles of birds, changing phenological patterns in plants. Fish populations have moved to seek cooler waters and potential disruptions of cold water upwelling will impact on marine ecosystems. Some animals like the Polar Bear are in grave danger of becoming extinct, since they rely on a frozen landmass for hunting and rearing of their young. Virtually all ecosystems are impacted by climate change. By using case studies, analyse which ecosystems and regions of the world will be most affected, and why? Also indicate which plants and animals are likely to be at most risk of extinction by the turn of the century.

9) Biodiversity and threats from Invasive Species.
The introduction of invasive alien species has had a profound impact on virtually all ecosystems world-wide (terrestrial, marine and freshwater). Using case studies identify some select ecosystems and discuss their vulnerability to biodiversity loss through the introduction of invasive species. In preparing your arguments take care to discuss the ecological impacts that invasive alien species have, not just a description of its spread.

10) The Species Concept and its implication for Biodiversity Studies and Policy Development
Almost all management of biodiversity and development of policy is based on species as the currency for conservation. In reality defining a species is less easy than it appears. The need for species to be adaptable ensures that most individual organisms have a unique genetic make-up. This inevitably leads to species being no more than a classification of similar genetic material.

Discuss the species concepts (including the origin and development of species concepts together with an overview of these concepts?), and their implication for biodiversity studies. Your presentation should also introduce the concept of Evolutionary Significant Unit (ESU). A good starting point on this topic is found is found here.

You will need to look at the implications of the “Species Problem” for legislation such as the Endangered Species Act.

PDF REQUEST

2007-03-06T14:56:00.000+02:00

Hi Richard (and indeed anyone else who can assist).

Please could I request information or the locations of PDFs (within the framework of copyright) I can dowload on the topic I selected for my biodiversity assignment (Museums and their role in biodiversity; systematics and methods etc.).

I have two papers I have found on the general subject around parasitology, however, I would like possibly some information on the role of GARP and any others which I can compare and include as tools to the museums in my discussion.

Any material is fine and I am happy to wade through whatever you can give me.

Cheers

David

Dane McDonald is in the mother blogging house!!!

2007-03-05T11:48:00.000+02:00

Just checking if i'm connected...

Novice blogger

2007-03-05T11:23:00.000+02:00

This is just a trial run to see whether I can actually post something. So, don't expect something great. I am such a novice at blogging and having had such a long break from my studies, everything seems like Greek. Until next time when I have something valuable to say.

Rosemary Eager

REVISED ASSESSMENT

2007-03-01T21:57:00.000+02:00

Hi Guys

I would like your comments on my proposal to reduce the amount of assignments to four by combining "Reconstructing Past Biodiversity" into Weblog contributions. I thought there was too muck work.

20% Short Quizzes
30% Web blog contribution (Reconstructing Past Biodiversity and general reading and providing comments on other person's blog contributions)

30% A Power Point Presentation of Peer-reviewed Material

20% Construction of an Electronic Classification Key.

You are welcome to leave any comments.

Here is Two Oceans Aquarium

2007-03-01T18:16:00.000+02:00

I work at the Two Oceans Aquarium. This is situated at Cape Town's Waterfront. I have attached a Map of Cape Town to show its location.

I will update this posting with more information soon!

FIRST CHAPTER AVAILABLE

2007-03-01T13:14:00.000+02:00

The first chapter is available from the following link

http://planet.uwc.ac.za/nisl/Biodiversity/chapter1/player.html

Make sure this is studied with the first two chapters of the text book Biodiversity II.

You will be tested on this section during Monday's class 5th March 2007.

Good Luck

BIODIVERSITY 2007

2007-02-26T09:00:00.000+02:00

Hi Everyone,

I had not realised that so many of the UWC students would opt for this course (at the end of the course I will let you into a secret)

Most of the course material is already prepared.

The official text book for the course is

Biodiversity II: Understanding and Protecting Our Biological Resources.

Marjorie L. Reaka-Kudla, Don E. Wilson, and Edward O. Wilson, Editors;

A Joseph Henry Press book.

We will provide a link for you to download an electronic copy - it has been made freely available to developing countries.

The Course will consist of:

An introduction and examination of the classification of organisms within one group - namely the Deuterstomia. We will look at construction of Taxonomic keys based on a representative group within this larger group.
Examination of how you can re-construct Biodiversity in the past. You will write a full- length essay on this topic.
Examination of the issues of Biodiversity, its value conservation and its influnce on policy, by way of online lectures and period quizzes.
Review of Peer-reviewed research in Biodiversity by way of preparing a Power Point Presentation.

Assessment

20% Short Quizzes
30% Web blog contribution (Reconstructing Past Biodiversity and general reading and providing comments on other person's blog contributions)

30% A Power Point Presentation of Peer-reviewed Material

20% Construction of an Electronic Classification Key.

Course Outcomes

Appreciation that classification systems of biodiversity are neither static nor necessarily agreed upon by all researchers. Biological classifications very often remain highly controversial and evolving.

Develop insights into the construction of taxonomic keys and demonstrate an ability to build an electronic key.

Insights into past Biodiversity that has existed.

Understand the significance of biodiversity to conservation and economic systems.

Understand how biodiversity might be impacted by society issues, of increasing need for developement, global climate change (whether it is human-induced or not) and the introduction of invasive species.

EXPECTATIONS FOR RE-DOING THE BIODIVERSITY ASSIGNMENT

2006-07-25T16:06:00.000+02:00

Hi

I have had a couple of emails, which suggest that there is still some things unclear and an expression that "I cannot find any information on my topic", well clearly the producers of the video material had no problems finding material so you need to think of this as an essay. So if your essay topic is to review the Diversity of Dinosaurs that occurred in North and South America - you watch the videos supplied - and this should get you started with an Internet search for material. Alternatively I have given you an environment like Grasslands to explore the biodiversity that exists in it so what are the conditions existing on the Grasslands? What plants and animals have evolved? What are some of the drivers for the evolution of these plant and animal forms? (Climate, Fire, Nutrients, etc)? You can use some of the plants and animals they have reviewed in the Video to start your research - since they have provided the names (just start by typing in the name of the animal or plant in Wikipedia). Now get more information on their classification or re-construct the habitats that they lived in if they are now extinct, What food do they/or did they ate? or what eats/ate them? It is up to you to obtain references and they should not just be Internet ones - use the various Journal Search engines that are available to you at CSIR such as EbscoHost and I think Science Direct and their use are described in Chapter 6 "Library Methods" of the Scientific Methodology http://planet.uwc.ac.za/nisl/Scientific_methods/Chapter6/index.html

This is about YOUR initiative - you need to work independently - the topics I have given are very large with thousands of Journal Articles and so there is considerable information to be found on each topic, be it animal migration of life in caves.

so to re-state my original instructions.

Make sure that you prepare an essay THAT INCLUDES MORE THAN THE contents of the video material you have reviewed, so PLEASE obtain extra material and ensure your essay is comprehensively referenced (AT LEAST 5 EXTRA REFERENCES). Images extracted from the Video and others from the Internet must also be comprehensively referenced.You report should be a MINIMUM of 6000 words, split into about 5-10 Sections with each section have 3 to 8 pages. Your Report should have at least 30 IMAGES (please see Karen's its 6700 words and 34 images).

As it appears most of you have not started I would like to add that at least THREE OF THE FIVE extra reference should be peer-reviewed Journal Articles. This is not an unreasonable request - most Departments do not except ANY references that are only Internet-based and further I provoided guidelines on suitable material for searches and referencing in my posting http://bcb703.blogspot.com/2006/04/abstracts-and-google-search-engine.html - in this posting I clearly stated that you needed to get more than Internet references and should be working to use Journal Articles and Book Chapters in fact I stated...

To help you assess what references to use and those not to use. First prize: A
hard copy, peer-reviewed publication Second prize: An electronic peer-reviewed
publication(eJournal) Third prizes: Published Books, Conference Proceedings with
higher value being attached to those that are peer-reviewed and a peer-reviewed
web resources such as Wikipedia

It is important that you go back and review courses that you have already done - these were designed to help you with assignments that you may be expected to do in the more subject-specific areas.

Finally some have reported that their videos do not work - again please ensure you have the K-Lite Codec installed before attempting to load these videos and make sure that you have configured your K-Lite as per instructions that I have already given to you plus the instructions on how to save images . See
http://bcb703.blogspot.com/2006/07/image-capture-from-k-lite-codec-pack.html , if they do not load on one PC try another PC (may be the DVD drive itself) and then copy over - I have duplicate DVDs here and all videos work with no problems (the video files are the ones with extensions such as *.avi, *.mov, *. mpeg, *.wmf, *.rn but those with an extension such as *.zip or *.rar or *.par are NOT video files so ignore these, further the Video files are very large files of around 375 Mbytes. If all else fails and your video really doesn't load contact me directly at my UWC email account (NOT my GMAIL) and I will provide links to download the material if it is still availble from the hosting sites (e.g. Rapidshare), this is where I got them and I had to learn to download, unzip and combine them.

Rich

PRETORIA: BIODIVERSITY ASSIGNMENT: WHEN CAN I EXPECT THEM?

2006-07-21T02:24:00.000+02:00

When can I expect your new Biodiversity assignments to be handed in? The original notice went out 9th July and required that is was submitted by Friday (14th July)! - To remind you these are the review of the video material that you have booked using the comment. Ignore if you have already sent this via CD OTHERWISE READ ON

I am confirming that they must be sent on CD complete with hard copies and signed plagiarism statements.

Use CSE referenceing and the CSE style guide as per Chapter 5 of Science Methodology and cite Author and Date in the text.

Please make sure you include your name and student number within the Word document.

Name your Word document as Initial_surname_biodiversity_2006_video.doc

For me more details refer to the original posting.

Rich

BIODIVERSITY: RE-VALUATIONS

2006-07-09T18:37:00.000+02:00

I have sent through the marks for Bio-diversity exam, given that most people did not pass either the Biodiversity Exam nor the coursework. I suggest you all do the same exercise that Karin and Vincet did here at UWC. This was a video review (in a Word Document) on various topics. You can review the video material (it is up in Pretoria) and Karen and Vincent's projects to get an idea of what to do. We have prepared the following material on the DVDs and each learner is to do one topic (similar to Vincent and Karen projects).

First please review the video material that was the basis of Karen and Vincent's projects and their final web products.

Karen's Project
http://planet.uwc.ac.za/nisl/biodiversity/karen/index.htm

Vincent's Project
http://planet.uwc.ac.za/nisl/biodiversity/vincent/index.htm

Now select a topic from the following list...

1) Dinosaurs of the Americas - reconstructing their diversity and ecological relationships (Extreme Dinosaur, California Dinosaurs)

2) Coral Reefs - review of diversity (including classifications) and ecological relationships (Nat Geography - Built for the Kill, BBC Amazon)

3) Tropical Forests - review of diversity (including classifications) and ecological relationships (Nat Geography - Built for the Kill )

4) Open Ocean - review of diversity (including classifications) and ecological relationships (Nat Geography - Built for the Kill )

5) Land Invertebrates - review of diversity (including classifications) and ecological relationships (Nat Geography - Built for the Kill )

6) Deserts - review of diversity (including classifications) and ecological relationships (Nat Geography - Built for the Kill, BBC Planet Earth)

7) Grasslands - review of diversity (including classifications) and ecological relationships (Nat Geography - Built for the Kill )

8) Mountains and Caves - review of diversity (including classifications) and ecological relationships (BBC Planet Earth)

9) Freshwater and Swamps - review of diversity (including classifications) and ecological relationships (Nat Geography - Built for the Kill, BBC Planet Earth)

10) Animal Migration - review of diversity (including classifications) and ecological relationships (BBC Planet Earth, LePEUPL Emigrateur)

Please make your selection and then add a comment confirming which topic you have selected.

In preparing your WORD document, keep it simple with minimum of formating (italic, Bold)and split your document into sections with Headings in CAPITALS, under each section use normal headings which will mark each web page. You can copy and paste images from the video (you can stop the video and use the keyboard Prt Sc key to capture it and paste this into you paint program, in which you can crop the image and insert in your word document). When you insert an image make sure you have a full caption BELOW your image.

THE TRIASIC PERIOD (Section Heading in Caps)
Climatic Conditions (Page heading Title Case)
Image (Freeze video and use Screen capture - use the keyboard Prt SC button)
Image Caption (Should be complete so you understand what it means without reading the text)

This needs to be completed by this coming Friday (14th July) and emailed to me at knight.rich@gmail.com

Make sure that you prepare an essay THAT INCLUDES MORE THAN THE contents of the video material you have reviewed, so PLEASE obtain extra material and ensure your essay is comprehensively referenced (AT LEAST 5 EXTRA REFERENCES). Images extracted from the Video and others from the Internet must also be comprehensively referenced.

You report should be a MINIMUM of 6000 words, split into about 5-10 Sections with each section have 3 to 8 pages. Your Report should have at least 30 IMAGES (please see Karen's its 6700 words and 34 images).

Cheers

Rich

Image Reference

http://www.qwantz.com/fanart/Trexstompryan.jpg

Cheers

Rich

BIODIVERSITY (CHAPTER 2 QUESTIONS)

2006-07-03T11:48:00.000+02:00

Hi Everyone

Can you please make sure that you have compiled all of your Answers (A to L) for Chapter 2 into a single Word document with your name and student number and email it to me (knight.rich@gmail.com) as soon as possible. Evylen and Letabo have alread done so, and many thanks. I will submit it to Turnitin so you get an originality report and this is for your information. I will not deduct marks based on this report in this case. I will, however, review your questions and where I think more generous marks could be given I will raise what you already have. I will not lower anyone's mark. I will put a few comments on the script which you will get shortly (I have not worked out how this will get to you).

Cheers

Rich

Image Reference

http://collections.ic.gc.ca/biodiversity/

ADDRESSING STUDENT PLAGIARISM

2006-06-25T12:23:00.000+02:00

All Email originating from UWC is covered by disclaimer http://www.uwc.ac.za/portal/uwc2006/content/mail_disclaimer/index.htm

Hi

I received this email from our Director of ICS Prof. Derek Keats on the 06/20/06 07:50AM so I thought you should all review the article referred to.

Please note that I plagiarized this word for word....thought it might be of interest....

"Sally Brown, pro vice chancellor for assessment, learning, and teaching at Leeds Metropolitan University in the United Kingdom, believes that the age of technology has not only made cheating easy but has also engendered a sense among today's students that there is nothing wrong with copying and pasting someone else's work into your own. Many students today, she said, simply do not understand what plagiarism is and why it is wrong. Of the several approaches Brown suggested for fixing the problem, the one she thinks the best is designing coursework around plagiarism. By giving assignments that require personal knowledge or that compel students to provide regular accounts of their studies, an instructor can largely avoid the issue of plagiarism, according to Brown. Other strategies include education, punishments, and changing the culture among students so that cheaters are looked down on by everyone."

BBC, 18 June 2006
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/5093286.stm

Derek Keats

I will be putting links up on the finalized documents from the Science Faculty for your attention.

Cheers

Rich

Dr Richard Knight
Co-ordinator: National Information Society Learnerships - Ecological Informatics
Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
Bellville 7535

Phone 27 + 21 + 959 3940
Fax 27 + 21 + 959 1237

Email Rknight@uwc.ac.za

Web http://nisl.uwc.ac.za

Phone 27 + 21 + 959 3940
Fax 27 + 21 + 959 1237

Email Rknight@uwc.ac.za

Web http://nisl.uwc.ac.za

PLAGIARISM PREVENTION, GRADING AND PEER-REVIEW: THE WAY FORWARD

2006-06-07T02:32:00.000+02:00

Hi Everyone

I am finalizing the contract with Turnitin so that future assignments for me (viz the NISL-EI2 courses) will require submitting to this electronic scanning service. This is not actually to scare you, rather to help you with your writing skills and get away from a dependency for lifting text from the Internet, printed text and even previous student assignments submitted (your assignments are entered into an electronic database that is used for future scanning). It works in the following way...

There will be a link on each course Blog page to Turnitin for submitting of the assignments.
You will be issued Turnitin accounts (usernames and logins) for the NISL-EI courses.
I will setup the assignment details for your submission.
In the beginning you will be required to create your student profile that will include your ClassID and Password, which I will provide you via email. You will then need to fill in your email address, provide your personal Turnitin password (a minimum of 6 letters and numbers but no special characters and at least one character must be a number), you will then be presented with a secrete password retrieval question and answer and finally to complete your profile you will provide your names (first and last name) and your Country.
The creation of your student profile is completed when you accept the user profile agreement form.
You will then get logged in and will navigate to the correct BCB course and assignment.
You will upload your assignment and you will see that it has been uploaded (you can check that it is the right document via the on screen system) and once confirmed you will get a digital receipt and a confirmation email message that the assignment was submitted and time stamped.
Late assignments will not be accepted via the electronic system.
If you are confused do not worry online training videos will be provided just prior to initiation of this process.

I have elected to go for an electronic marking as well, so your assignment will be analysed first for Plagiarism and if too high will be returned to you with a full report of where there is plagiarism and close paraphrasing. I do not know how strictly this system will apply the rules but certainly just changing a word or two in place will not fool the system and it is based on a very comprehensive database. I will then use my discretion as to whether you get zero marks or a chance to re-submit. Unfortunately the cost of the scanning service is rather expensive and we pay for both an annual subscription and a per document cost, so chances to re-submit will be restricted (each assignment will cost me about R10 to process). An electronic grading will be done and you will be sent back your marked-up scripts with the grade electronically. This system will work much better than the old way of emailing them to my gmail account which I can only access after hours. Finally some assignments will also be peer marked by yourselves using the Turnitin Peer Review system.

Hopefully this will level the playing field and be fair to everyone and was a decision not taken lightly. Until I know when our payments have been made and the Turnitin accounts been set up please hold back from submitting any assignments such as the Biodiversity due at the end of this week. The first assignment that you will be submitting will be your cumulative Biodiversity reports (all of your answers combined into one report to save scanning costs and processing time). Since you have had extensive feedback on these assignments previously it will give us the perfect opportunity to know precisely how the implementation of the system will work.

Can you please confirm that you have read and understood this posting by attaching a comment and your name. This is also an opportunity to air any issues that you have or to finally clear up any misunderstandings, I promise to respond to all of your concerns if expressed.

Good Luck

Rich

Dr Richard Knight
Co-ordinator: National Information Society Learnerships - Ecological Informatics
Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
Bellville 7535

Phone 27 + 21 + 959 3940
Fax 27 + 21 + 959 1237

Email Rknight@uwc.ac.za

Web http://nisl.uwc.ac.za

TIPS FOR ESSAY CORRECTIONS

2006-06-01T11:05:00.000+02:00

The following tips apply to all the essays (i.e. sections A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K & L).

Check that the content of your essays is relevant to the topic and that you cover the information in sufficient detail - mentioning a fact is usually not enough.
Make sure that your essays are logically organized.
Try to use your own words as much as possible. Quotes are better than plagiarism but you will get marked down if you use a lot of them.
Make sure all your references are in your reference list and in your text. Vincent's essay on "Digestion in Herbivores" is a good example of how to put your references in the text. Please note that he used his own words so no quotes were needed.
Make sure that you do not repeat references in your reference list.
Make sure that you have used at least three references for each essay.
Make sure that you use other sources as well as Wikipedia.

Gwen Raitt
Content Developer
NISL Programme
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
Bellville
7535
email: graitt@uwc.ac.za