Biodiversity

DESCRIPTION OF THE SKATES (CHONDRICHTHYES)

2007-04-08T17:08:00.000+02:00

Bathyraja smithii (African softnose skate)

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.3 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Separate.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 90–100 degrees.
Snout shape obtuse.
Snout length 2–2.6 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 24–28.
Ocular thorns absent.
Nuchal thorns absent.
Scapular thorns absent.
Ventral disc surface smooth.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 68–71.
Total length 114 cm.
Length DW 85 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 1.
Thorns on tail absent.
Number of mid dorsal thorns 14–19.
Ventral base colour white.
Maximum number of median nuchal thorns 0.
Ventral surface ornamentation black mucous pores absent.
IUCN status Not on IUCN Red data list.

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=10121&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

Cruriraja parcomaculata (Roughnose legskate)

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.4 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Separate.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 112–120 degrees.
Snout shape pointed.
Snout length 2.6–3.5 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 39–44.
Ocular thorns thorns on the inner margin of orbit present.
Nuchal thorns absent.
Scapular thorns 3 on each side.
Ventral disc surface smooth.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 66–69.
Total length 55 cm.
Length DW 35 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 8.
Thorns on tail present.
Number of mid dorsal thorns 30–45.
Ventral base colour white.
Maximum number of median nuchal thorns 0.
Ventral surface ornamentation black mucous pores absent.
IUCN status Not on IUCN Red data list.

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=10122&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

Neoraja stehmanni (African Pygmy skate)

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.4 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Continuous.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 115–130 degrees.
Snout shape rounded.
Snout length 2.9–3.8 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 38–44.
Ocular thorns preorbital and postorbital thorns present.
Nuchal thorns present.
Scapular thorns 1 on each side.
Ventral disc surface smooth.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 65–74.
Total length 35 cm.
Length DW 20 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns unknown.
Thorns on tail present.
Number of mid dorsal thorns 11–38.
Ventral base colour pale.
Maximum number of median nuchal thorns 4.
Ventral surface ornamentation black mucous pores absent.
IUCN status Not on IUCN Red data list.

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=25558&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

Raja alba (Spearnose skate)

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.5 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Separate.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 105 degrees.
Snout shape sharply pointed.
Snout length 2.5–3.2 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 40–45.
Ocular thorns thorns on the inner margin of orbit present.
Nuchal thorns unknown.
Scapular thorns unknown.
Ventral disc surface with spinules.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 62–67.
Total length 230 cm.
Length DW 160 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 2.
Thorns on tail present.
Number of mid dorsal thorns 16–30.
Ventral base colour white.
Ventral surface ornamentation black mucous pores absent.
IUCN status Endangered.

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=7613&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

Raja doutrei (Violet skate)

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.2 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Separate.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 72 degrees.
Snout shape sharply pointed.
Snout length 3.8–4 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 32.
Ocular thorns thorns on the inner margin of orbit present.
Nuchal thorns unknown.
Scapular thorns unknown.
Ventral disc surface with spines.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 43–49.
Total length 100 cm.
Length DW 70 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 2.
Thorns on tail unknown.
Number of mid dorsal thorns 13–26.
Ventral base colour brown.
Ventral surface ornamentation with black mucous pores.
IUCN status Not on IUCN Red data list.

http://filaman/ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.cfm?ID=5012&genusname=Dipturus&speciesname=doutrei

Raja miraletus (Twineye skate)

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.4 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Separate.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 110–116 degrees.
Snout shape pointed.
Snout length 2.3–3.1 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 42–50.
Ocular thorns thorns on the inner margin of orbit present.
Nuchal thorns present.
Scapular thorns unknown.
Ventral disc surface with spinules.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 44–52.
Total length 50 cm.
Length DW 35 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns unknown.
Thorns on tail present.
Number of mid dorsal thorns 10–27.
Ventral base colour pale.
Maximum number of median nuchal thorns 0–2.
Ventral surface ornamentation black mucous pores absent.
IUCN status Not on IUCN Red data list.

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=5014&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=5014&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=5014&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

Raja pullopunctata (Slime skate)

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.4 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Separate.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 92–108 degrees.
Snout shape pointed.
Snout length 3.4–4.1 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 53–58.
Ocular thorns thorns on the inner margin of orbit present.
Nuchal thorns present.
Scapular thorns unknown.
Ventral disc surface with spinules.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 50–58.
Total length 125 cm.
Length DW 94 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 2.
Thorns on tail unknown.
Number of mid dorsal thorns 10–12.
Ventral base colour grey.
Maximum number of median nuchal thorns 2.
Ventral surface ornamentation with black mucous pores.
IUCN status Data deficient.

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=7960&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

Raja radiata

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.3 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Separate.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 100 degrees.
Snout shape obtuse.
Snout length 2.1–2.4 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 37–39.
Ocular thorns preorbital and postorbital thorns present.
Nuchal thorns present.
Scapular thorns 3 on each side.
Ventral disc surface smooth.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 58–62.
Total length 100 cm.
Length DW 77 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 0.
Thorns on tail present.
Number of mid dorsal thorns 11–19.
Ventral base colour white.
Maximum number of median nuchal thorns 2.
Ventral surface ornamentation black mucous pores absent.
IUCN status Not on IUCN Red data list.

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=2565&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=2565&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

Raja wallacei (Blancmange skate)

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.3 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Separate.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 110 degrees.
Snout shape unknown.
Snout length 2.3–3.1 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 59–67.
Ocular thorns preorbital and postorbital thorns present.
Nuchal thorns present.
Scapular thorns unknown.
Ventral disc surface with spinules.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 70.
Total length 92 cm.
Length DW 53 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 0.
Thorns on tail unknown.
Number of mid dorsal thorns 34.
Ventral base colour pale.
Maximum number of median nuchal thorns 7.
Ventral surface ornamentation black mucous pores absent.
IUCN status Not on IUCN Red data list.

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=7964&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=7964&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

Raja lanceorostrata (Rattail skate)

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.3 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Separate.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 66 degrees.
Snout shape pointed.
Snout length 5.2–7.4 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 31.
Ocular thorns preorbital and postorbital thorns present.
Nuchal thorns present.
Scapular thorns absent.
Ventral disc surface smooth.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 56–57.
Total length 82 cm.
Length DW 55 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 1.
Thorns on tail unknown.
Number of mid dorsal thorns 26.
Ventral base colour grey.
Maximum number of median nuchal thorns 1.
Ventral surface ornamentation black mucous pores absent.
IUCN status Data deficient.

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=7961&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

Cruriraja triangularis (Triangular leg skate)

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.3 times as broad as long.
First dorsal fin Separate.
Maximum angle in front of spiracles 90 degrees.
Snout shape pointed.
Snout length 3.9 x times the interorbital distance.
Number of rows of teeth on the upper jaw 42–46.
Ocular thorns thorns on the inner margin of orbit present.
Nuchal thorns present.
Scapular thorns unknown.
Ventral disc surface unknown.
Number of predorsal caudal vertebrae 65–70.
Total length 41 cm.
Length DW 24 cm.
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 4.
Thorns on tail unknown.
Ventral base colour pale.
Maximum number of median nuchal thorns 5.
Ventral surface ornamentation black mucous pores absent.
IUCN status Not on IUCN Red data list.

http://filaman.ifm-geomar.de/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=7959&CFID=4248164&CFTOKEN=76469438

Please note that all distribution images are that of Africa, and in some cases Africa and Eurasia. Blue points indicate distribution data points.

Descriptions from: Smith M, Heemstra P (1986) Smith's Sea Fishes. Macmillan Publishers, South Africa, ISBN 0869542664, pp 1047

INTERACTIVE DELTA KEY ON THE SKATES (CHONDRICHTHYES)

2007-04-08T16:56:00.000+02:00

Key 5a. Confirmatory characters

Characters: 20 in data, 12 included, 9 in key.
Items: 11
in data, 11 included, 11 in key.
Parameters: Rbase = 1.40 Abase =
2.00 Reuse = 1.01 Varywt = .80
Characters included: 1–2 4
7–10 14–15 17 19–20
Character reliabilities:
1–20,5.0

1(0).

Maximum number of
interdorsal thorns 0 ... 2
Maximum number of
interdorsal thorns 1... Bathyraja smithii

Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 8... Cruriraja
parcomaculata

Maximum number of interdorsal thorns unknown... 3
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 2... 4
Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 1... Raja
lanceorostrata

Maximum number of interdorsal thorns 4... Cruriraja
triangularis

2(1).

Snout shape obtuse; Scapular thorns 3 on each side; Ventral disc surface
smooth; Thorns on tail present ... Raja radiata

Snout shape unknown; Scapular thorns unknown; Ventral disc surface with
spinules; Thorns on tail unknown... Raja
wallacei

3(1).

Snout shape rounded; Scapular thorns 1 on each side; Ventral disc surface
smooth; First dorsal fin Continuous ... Neoraja stehmanni

Snout shape pointed; Scapular thorns unknown; Ventral disc surface with
spinules; First dorsal fin Separate... Raja
miraletus

4(1).

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.4 times as broad as long; ventral base
colour grey; IUCN status Data deficient ... Raja pullopunctata

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.5 times as broad as long; ventral base
colour white; IUCN status Endangered... Raja alba

Maximum disc width:length ratio 1.2 times as broad as long; ventral base
colour brown; IUCN status Not on IUCN Red data list... Raja
doutrei

Cite this publication as:
‘My_Authors (2000 onwards). ‘My_Title: Descriptions, Illustrations,
Identification, and Information Retrieval. Version: 21st September 2000. http://My_URL’. Dallwitz (1980) and Dallwitz,
Paine and Zurcher (1993, 1995, 2000) should also be cited (see References).

Index

DESCRIPTIONS OF WHALES AND DOLPHINS

2007-04-06T12:19:00.000+02:00

Balaena glacialis (Southern Right Whale)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=Balaena+glacialis

Distribution Arctic and Sub Antarctica; or near the coast; or Southern hemisphere.
Conseravation status Depleted; or Endangered.
Teeth 0 number (if unknown leave blank).
Size 14–17 m.
Weight 54500 kg.
Echolocation absent.
Dorsal fin absent.
Throat grooves absent.
Colour dorsal black-blue.
Colour ventral pale black-blue.
Migration yes.
Diet copepods.
Breeding grounds South Africa.
Head contains wart-like collosities.
Distinctive characteristic none.
Snout arched.
Thoracic Vertebrae 14 number (if unknown leave blank).
Lumbar Vertebrae 12 number (if unknown leave blank).
Caudal Vertebrae 24 number (if unknown leave blank).
Pelvis vestigial.
Body robust.
Baleen plates present Yes.
Teeth present No.

Megaptera novaeangliae (Humpback Whale)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=Humpback+whale

Distribution World wide.
Conseravation status Depleted; or Endangered.
Teeth 0 number (if unknown leave blank).
Size 14–15 m.
Weight 35000 kg.
Echolocation absent.
Dorsal fin present.
Throat grooves present.
Colour dorsal white.
Colour ventral white.
Migration yes.
Diet krill.
Breeding grounds Tropical and Subtropical.
Head small knobs on upper jaw.
Distinctive characteristic long, narrow flippers.
Snout unknown.
Thoracic Vertebrae 14 number (if unknown leave blank).
Lumbar Vertebrae 10 number (if unknown leave blank).
Caudal Vertebrae 22 number (if unknown leave blank).
Pelvis vestigial.
Body stocky.
Baleen plates present Yes.
Teeth present No.

Physeter macrocephalus (Sperm Whale)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=Sperm+whale

Distribution World wide; or inshore.
Conseravation status Depleted; or Endangered.
Teeth 48 number (if unknown leave blank).
Size 15–18 m.
Weight 36000 kg.
Echolocation present.
Dorsal fin present.
Throat grooves unknown.
Colour dorsal grey.
Colour ventral grey.
Migration unknown.
Diet squid; or octopus.
Breeding grounds Unknown.
Head contains spermaceti; or enormous, blunt.
Distinctive characteristic enormous, blunt head.
Snout unknown.
Thoracic Vertebrae 11 number (if unknown leave blank).
Lumbar Vertebrae 8 number (if unknown leave blank).
Caudal Vertebrae 24 number (if unknown leave blank).
Pelvis absent.
Body very large and prune-like.
Baleen plates present No.
Teeth present Yes.

Orcinus orca (Killer Whale)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=Killer+whale

Distribution Arctic and Sub Antarctica; or Southern Africa.
Conseravation status Low risk.
Teeth 44 number (if unknown leave blank).
Size 7–9 m.
Weight 5000 kg.
Echolocation present.
Dorsal fin present.
Throat grooves unknown.
Colour dorsal black.
Colour ventral white.
Migration yes.
Diet squid; or fish; or birds; or seals; or dolphins; or larger whales.
Breeding grounds Unknown.
Head oval , white patch behind eye.
Distinctive characteristic gey saddle behind dorsal fin.
Snout unknown.
Thoracic Vertebrae 12 number (if unknown leave blank).
Lumbar Vertebrae 10 number (if unknown leave blank).
Caudal Vertebrae 23 number (if unknown leave blank).
Pelvis absent.
Body torpedo shaped.
Baleen plates present No.
Teeth present Yes.

Delphinus delphis (Common Dolphin)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=common+dolphin

Distribution warm temperate waters; or near the coast.
Conseravation status Unknown.
Size 2.5 m.
Weight 160 kg.
Echolocation unknown.
Dorsal fin present.
Throat grooves unknown.
Colour dorsal black; or pale-grey.
Colour ventral white.
Migration unknown.
Diet shoaling pelagic fish.
Breeding grounds Unknown.
Head long, narrow, pointed beak.
Distinctive characteristic criss-cross figure-of-eight pattern on the sides.
School size 1000–5000 number (if unknown leave blank).
Snout unknown.
Pelvis unknown.
Body torpedo shaped.
Baleen plates present No.
Teeth present Yes.

Tursiops truncatus (Bottlenosed dolphin)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=bottlenosed+dolphin

Distribution inshore; or near the coast; or Southern Africa.
Conseravation status Vulnerable; or Depleted.
Teeth 98 number (if unknown leave blank).
Size 2.6–3.3 m.
Weight 200 kg.
Echolocation present.
Dorsal fin present.
Throat grooves unknown.
Colour dorsal grey; or dark-grey.
Colour ventral off-white speckled with grey spots.
Migration unknown.
Diet squid; or fish.
Breeding grounds Unknown.
Head bottle-shaped.
Distinctive characteristic darker grey "cape" on the back.
School size 20–50 number (if unknown leave blank).
Snout moderate length.
Thoracic Vertebrae 14 number (if unknown leave blank).
Lumbar Vertebrae 15 number (if unknown leave blank).
Caudal Vertebrae 29 number (if unknown leave blank).
Pelvis absent.
Body robust.
Baleen plates present No.
Teeth present Yes.

Cephalorhynchus heavisidii (Heaviside's Dolphin)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=Heavisides+dolphin&btnG=Search+Images

Distribution near the coast; or Southern Africa.
Conseravation status Unknown.
Size 1.7 m.
Echolocation unknown.
Dorsal fin present.
Throat grooves unknown.
Colour dorsal black.
Colour ventral white.
Migration unknown.
Diet fish.
Breeding grounds Unknown.
Head indistinct beak.
Distinctive characteristic white lobe pointing obliquely backwards towards the tail.
Snout rounded.
Pelvis unknown.
Body thick-set; or torpedo shaped.
Baleen plates present No.
Teeth present Yes.

Lagenorhynchus obscurus (Dusky Dolphin)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=Dusky+dolphin

Distribution near the coast; or Southern hemisphere.
Conseravation status Unknown.
Size 1.9 m.
Weight 115 kg.
Echolocation unknown.
Dorsal fin present.
Throat grooves unknown.
Colour dorsal black; or dark-grey.
Colour ventral white; or pale grey-white.
Migration unknown.
Diet squid; or fish.
Breeding grounds Unknown.
Head very short, black-tipped beak.
Distinctive characteristic two-tone dorsal fin.
Snout rounded.
Pelvis unknown.
Body torpedo shaped.
Baleen plates present No.
Teeth present Yes.

Stenella coeruleoalba (Striped Dolphin)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=Striped+dolphin

Distribution warm temperate waters; or near the coast.
Conseravation status Low risk.
Size 2.5 m.
Weight 150 kg.
Echolocation unknown.
Dorsal fin present.
Throat grooves unknown.
Colour dorsal dark blue-grey.
Colour ventral white.
Migration unknown.
Diet squid; or fish.
Breeding grounds Unknown.
Head three distinct grey lines running from the eye.
Distinctive characteristic 3 grey lines running backwards from the eye.
School size 5–400 number (if unknown leave blank).
Pelvis unknown.
Body torpedo shaped.
Baleen plates present No.
Teeth present Yes.

Sousa plumbea (Humpback Dolphin)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=Humpback+dolphin

Distribution inshore; or Southern Africa.
Conseravation status Vulnerable.
Size 2.8 m.
Weight 280 kg.
Echolocation unknown.
Dorsal fin present.
Throat grooves unknown.
Colour dorsal dark-grey.
Colour ventral off-white.
Migration unknown.
Diet krill; or fish.
Breeding grounds Unknown.
Head long, narrow, pointed beak.
Distinctive characteristic mid dorsal elongate ridge on back.
School size 5–25 number (if unknown leave blank).
Snout unknown.
Pelvis unknown.
Body torpedo shaped.
Baleen plates present No.
Teeth present Yes.

Lissodelphis peronii (Southern Right Whale Dolphin)

http://images.google.co.za/images?svnum=10&hl=en&gbv=2&q=Lissodelphis+peronii

Distribution cold temperate waters; or Southern hemisphere.
Conseravation status Unknown.
Size 2.3 m.
Weight 60 kg.
Echolocation present.
Dorsal fin absent.
Throat grooves unknown.
Colour dorsal black.
Colour ventral white.
Migration unknown.
Diet squid; or fish; or octopus; or tiny crustaceans.
Breeding grounds Unknown.
Head white face.
Distinctive characteristic dorsal fin absent.
Snout rounded.
Pelvis unknown.
Body torpedo shaped.
Baleen plates present No.
Teeth present Yes.

References:

Branch, G.M., Griffiths, C.L., Branch, M.L., Beckley, L.E.(2002) Two Oceans: A guide to the Marine Life of Southern Africa, David Philips Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa, 360pp
Gaskin, D.E.(1982) The Ecolgy of Whales and Dolphins, BAS Printers Ltd, Britain, 459pp
Macdonald, D., Norris, S.(2001) The New Encyclopedia of Mammals, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 930pp
Purves, P.E. & Pilleri G.E.(1983) Echolocation in Whales and Dolphins, Galliard Printes Ltd, Great Britain, 261pp
http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/cetaceans/

DESCRIPTION OF 10 COMMON ATLANTIC OCEAN JELLYFISH

2007-04-06T11:33:00.000+02:00

Description of Cyanea capillata

Shape umbrella.
Bell description unknown.
Bell diameter 50–250 cm.
Bell height 50–250 cm.
Bell margin scalloped.
Marginal lappets present.
Exumbrella surface unknown.
Mesoglea unknown.
Tentacles present.
Tentacle description thin; or clustered; or whip-like; or hollow; or long.
Tentacle location arise from subumbrella surface.
Mouth present.
Tiny pores "mouthlets" absent.
Stomach description unknown.
Stomach poaches present.
Oral arms present.
Oral arm description unknown.
Gonad position unknown.
Colour orange-tan oral arms.
Geographical range around South African coast none.
Synonyms lion's mane jellyfish; or red jelly.

http://www.soil.msu.ru/~invert/main_eng/photoalbum/cyanea.html

Description of Pelagia noticulata

Shape umbrella.
Bell description square hemispherical; or deep.
Bell diameter 12 cm.
Bell margin scalloped.
Marginal lappets present.
Marginal lappet number 16.
Exumbrella surface warty.
Mesoglea unknown.
Tentacles present.
Tentacle description whip-like; or long.
Tentacle number 8.
Tentacle location marginal.
Rhopalia number 8.
Mouth present.
Tiny pores "mouthlets" absent.
Stomach description unknown.
Stomach poaches present.
Oral arms present.
Oral arm description warty; or frilly.
Gonad position center of bell.
Colour red-magenta-brown spots on oral arms; or red-magenta-brown spots on exumbrella.
Geographical range around South African coast Fasle Bay.
Synonyms night-light jellyfish.

http://www.njscuba.net/biology/sw_jellies.html

Description of Eupilema inexpectata

Shape umbrella.
Bell description shallow; or hemispherical.
Bell diameter 30 cm.
Bell margin "serrated".
Marginal lappets present.
Marginal lappet number 8.
Exumbrella surface finely granular.
Mesoglea thicker in center.
Tentacles absent.
Tentacle description absent.
Tentacle location absent.
Rhopalia number 8.
Mouth absent.
Tiny pores "mouthlets" present.
Stomach description unknown.
Stomach poaches unknown.
Oral arms present.
Oral arm description fused at base; or smooth.
Gonad position unknown.
Colour variable.
Geographical range around South African coast south coast; or west coast; or east coast.
Synonyms root-mouthed jellyfish.

Taken from: Boltovskoy D (Ed) (1999) South Atlantic Zooplankton. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, pp 868. ISBN 90-5782-035-8

Description of Aequorea conica

Shape conical.
Bell description domed apex.
Bell diameter 0.9 cm.
Bell height 1–1.2 cm.
Bell margin smooth.
Marginal lappets absent.
Exumbrella surface smooth.
Mesoglea thick.
Tentacles present.
Tentacle description thin; or short.
Tentacle number 20–30.
Tentacle location marginal.
Mouth present.
Tiny pores "mouthlets" absent.
Stomach description unknown.
Stomach poaches unknown.
Oral arms absent.
Oral arm description absent.
Gonad position radial canals.
Colour variable.
Geographical range around South African coast west coast.
Synonyms crystal jellyfish.

Taken from:Boltovskoy D (Ed) (1999) South Atlantic Zooplankton. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, pp 868. ISBN 90-5782-035-8

Description of Periphylla periphylla

Shape conical.
Bell description domed apex.
Bell diameter 25 cm.
Bell height 35 cm.
Bell margin scalloped.
Marginal lappets present.
Marginal lappet number 16.
Exumbrella surface smooth.
Mesoglea rigid; or thick.
Tentacles present.
Tentacle description stiff; or solid.
Tentacle number 12.
Tentacle location marginal.
Rhopalia number 4.
Mouth present.
Tiny pores "mouthlets" absent.
Stomach description large.
Stomach poaches unknown.
Oral arms absent.
Oral arm description absent.
Gonad position interradial septa.
Colour red-brown manubrium and stomach.
Geographical range around South African coast west coast.
Synonyms helmet jelly.

http://jellieszone.com/periphylla.htm

Description of Chrysaora hysoscella

Shape umbrella.
Bell description flatter than a hemisphere; or shallow.
Bell diameter 15–28 cm.
Bell margin scalloped.
Marginal lappets present.
Marginal lappet number 32–48.
Exumbrella surface smooth.
Mesoglea thick.
Tentacles present.
Tentacle description hollow; or long.
Tentacle number 24.
Tentacle location between cleft of lappets; or marginal.
Rhopalia number 8.
Mouth present.
Tiny pores "mouthlets" absent.
Stomach description unknown.
Stomach poaches present.
Oral arms present.
Oral arm description narrow; or v-shaped; or frilly.
Oral arm number 4.
Gonad position stomach.
Colour brown v-shaped bans on exumbrella; or brown lappets.
Geographical range around South African coast west coast.
Synonyms red-banded jellyfish; or compass jellyfish; or sea nettle.

http://www.riminiambiente.it/index.jsp?idsection=32&idsubsection=162

Description of Solmundella bitentaculata

Shape bell-shaped.
Bell description domed apex.
Bell diameter 0.5 cm.
Bell height 0.5 cm.
Bell margin scalloped.
Marginal lappets unknown.
Exumbrella surface unknown.
Mesoglea thick at apex.
Tentacles present.
Tentacle description long.
Tentacle number 2.
Tentacle location above bell edge.
Mouth present.
Tiny pores "mouthlets" absent.
Stomach description short; or broad; or circular.
Stomach poaches present.
Oral arms absent.
Oral arm description absent.
Gonad position stomach.
Colour variable.
Geographical range around South African coast west coast.
Synonyms unknown.

http://www.medusozoa.com/hydro_pics.html

Description of Liriope tetraphylla

Shape umbrella.
Bell description flat at apex; or hemispherical.
Bell diameter 1–3 cm.
Bell margin smooth.
Marginal lappets absent.
Exumbrella surface unknown.
Mesoglea thin; or thick at apex.
Tentacles present.
Tentacle description hollow; or long.
Tentacle number 4.
Tentacle location marginal.
Tiny pores "mouthlets" present.
Stomach description small.
Stomach poaches unknown.
Oral arms absent.
Oral arm description absent.
Gonad position radial canals.
Colour variable.
Geographical range around South African coast west coast.

http://www.usp.br/cbm/pesquisa/migotto/hidromedusas.html

Description of Carybdea alata

Shape cubodial.
Bell description flat at apex; or deep.
Bell diameter 2 cm.
Bell height 4 cm.
Bell margin smooth.
Marginal lappets absent.
Exumbrella surface smooth.
Mesoglea thin.
Tentacles present.
Tentacle description whip-like; or long.
Tentacle number 4.
Tentacle location at each corner of bell.
Mouth present.
Tiny pores "mouthlets" absent.
Stomach description unknown.
Stomach poaches present.
Oral arms absent.
Oral arm description absent.
Gonad position radial sinus.
Colour variable.
Geographical range around South African coast south coast; or west coast.
Synonyms box jellyfish; or sea wasp.

http://life.bio.sunysb.edu/marinebio/plankton.html

Description of Aurelia aurita

Shape umbrella.
Bell description shallow.
Bell diameter 30 cm.
Bell margin scalloped.
Marginal lappets unknown.
Exumbrella surface smooth.
Tentacles present.
Tentacle description hollow; or short.
Tentacle location marginal.
Mouth present.
Tiny pores "mouthlets" absent.
Stomach description unknown.
Stomach poaches present.
Oral arms present.
Oral arm description v-shaped.
Gonad position stomach.
Colour variable.
Geographical range around South African coast west coast.
Synonyms moon jellyfish.

http://www.aquarium-du-golfe.com/english/wallpaper.php

Primary reference: Boltovskoy D (Ed) (1999) South Atlantic Zooplankton. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, pp 868. ISBN 90-5782-035-8

Secondary refernce:Pages F, Gili JP and Bouillon J (1992) Medusa (Hydrozoa, Scyphozoa, Cubozoa) of the Benguela Current. Scientia Marina 56:1-64

INTERACTIVE KEY ON DOLPHINS AND WHALES

2007-04-06T11:11:00.000+02:00

Key 5a. Confirmatory characters

Characters: 22 in data, 15 included, 8 in key.
Items: 11 in data, 11 included, 14 in key.
Parameters: Rbase = 1.40 Abase = 2.00 Reuse = 1.01 Varywt = .80
Characters included: 1–2 6–13 15 19–22
Character reliabilities: 1–22,5.0

1(0).

Colour dorsal black-blue ... Balaena glacialis
Colour dorsal white... Megaptera novaeangliae
Colour dorsal black... 2
Colour dorsal pale-grey... Delphinus delphis
Colour dorsal grey... 5
Colour dorsal dark-grey... 6
Colour dorsal dark blue-grey... Stenella coeruleoalba

2(1).

Echolocation present ... 3
Echolocation unknown... 4

3(2).

Snout rounded; Dorsal fin absent; Migration unknown; Conseravation status Unknown ... Lissodelphis peronii
Snout unknown; Dorsal fin present; Migration yes; Conseravation status Low risk... Orcinus orca

4(2).

Snout rounded ... Cephalorhynchus heavisidii, Lagenorhynchus obscurus
Snout unknown... Delphinus delphis

5(1).

Colour ventral off-white speckled with grey spots; Snout moderate length; Body robust ... Tursiops truncatus
Colour ventral grey; Snout unknown; Body very large and prune-like... Physeter macrocephalus

6(1).

Snout moderate length ... Tursiops truncatus
Snout rounded... Lagenorhynchus obscurus
Snout unknown... Sousa plumbea

INTERACTIVE KEY ON ATLANTIC OCEAN JELLYFISH

2007-04-06T10:27:00.000+02:00

Characters: 25 in data, 19 included, 10 in key.
Items: 10 in data, 10 included, 10 in key.
Parameters: Rbase = 1.40 Abase = 2.00 Reuse = 1.01 Varywt = .80
Characters included: 1–2 5–6 8–11 13 15–20 22–25
Character reliabilities: 1–25,5.0

1(0).

Gonad position center of bell ... Pelagia noticulata
Gonad position stomach... 2
Gonad position interradial septa... Periphylla periphylla
Gonad position radial canals... 4
Gonad position radial sinus... Carybdea alata
Gonad position unknown... 5

2(1).

Marginal lappets present ... Chrysaora hysoscella
Marginal lappets unknown... 3

3(2).

Exumbrella surface smooth; shape umbrella; bell description shallow;
tentacle location marginal ... Aurelia aurita
Exumbrella surface unknown; shape bell-shaped; bell description domed apex; tentacle location above bell edge... Solmundella bitentaculata

4(1).

Exumbrella surface smooth; tiny pores "mouthlets" absent; stomach
description unknown; shape conical ... Aequorea conica
Exumbrella surface unknown; tiny pores "mouthlets" present; stomach
description small; shape umbrella... Liriope tetraphylla

5(1).

Exumbrella surface finely granular; tiny pores "mouthlets" present; bell
margin "serrated"; mesoglea thicker in center ... Eupilema inexpectata
Exumbrella surface unknown; tiny pores "mouthlets" absent; bell margin
scalloped; mesoglea unknown... Cyanea capillata

Chapter 7- High biodiversity under threat POPULARITY POLL

2007-04-02T08:38:00.000+02:00

Please all, take some time to give chapter 7 a rating from 1-10.
I found it excrutiating! I give it a 4...

A LOSS OF GENETIC INTEGRITY- Hybridization in the most endangered canid, Canis simensis

2007-04-01T16:58:00.000+02:00

By Dane E. McDonald

Image 1 Canis simensis with characteristic fur markings

Canis simensis, also called the Ethiopian wolf or Simien jackal, is a canid that occurs in the geographical isolation of a compact group of Ethiopian mountains or highlands (Gottelli et al, 2004). This animal’s geographic isolation can be explained by the last glaciation (70 000-10 000 years BP), which allowed its cold-adapted European ancestors (gray wolves and coyotes) to immigrate into Africa (Gottelli et al 2004; Gottelli et al 1994).

C. simensis is endemic to the Ethiopian highlands and occur above the tree line at altitudes above 3000 meters (IUCN data). This area is generally termed alpine tundra (Miller, 2004) or more specifically Afro-alpine habitat (Gottelli et al, 1994). According to Sillero-Zubiri and Macdonald (1998) the Afro-alpine zone is characterized by short, sparse vegetation, dominated by Alchemilla sp. pasture and a short herb community including Helichrysum sp. and Artemisia sp. shrubs. Marino et al (2006) suggests that the optimal habitat would be one with open and flat landscapes with meadows and grasslands, which sustain an exceptionally high biomass of rodents.

The giant mole rat, Tachyoryctes macrocephalus, is one of the most common and important prey species that occur in this zone. C. simensis has developed an extreme feeding specialization on such rodents (Gottelli et al, 2004). It follows that its distribution is also limited by the availability of these rodents.

The Conservation Problem

Ethiopian wolves are diurnal, medium-sized canids with body mass ranging between thirteen and twenty kilograms (Randall et al, 2006; Haydon et al, 2002). According to Gottelli et al (1994) these animals are very distinctive, having a reddish coat, with white underparts, throat, chest, and tail markings (Image 1). They also display a skull morphology that indicates adaptations for catching rodents. Dalton et al (unpublished data) identifies features such as a very elongated skull with long jaws in which teeth (especially the premolars) are widely spaced. According to Gottelli et al (1994) they are territorial, social animals that live in multi-male packs, which have been observed to be as large as thirteen adults. A general trend shows that only dominant females breed. This is due to dominance hierarchies within packs (Sillero-Zubiri et al, 1996).

Image 2 A map of C. simensis habitat in the Ethiopian highlands showing the large historic extent (yellow) and the limited present extent (red)

Ethiopian wolves are currently the most endangered canids in the world, with approximately 600 individuals remaining (Randall et al, 2006). They are limited to seven isolated Afro-alpine ranges across the Ethiopian highlands (Image 2). In a study done by Gottelli et al (1994) hybridization with domestic dogs was identified as one of the main threats to the genetic integrity of the canids in this area. Andersone et al (2002) suggest that hybridization has the potential to produce morphological, physiological and behavioural changes in wild canids. This deserves serious attention due to its ecological and management consequences.

Gottelli et al (1994) explains that the Ethiopian highlands are among the most densely populated agricultural areas, where Afro-alpine grasslands are increasingly being used for grazing. As a result, Ethiopian wolves cannot easily avoid contact with humans and their domestic dogs. This is exemplified in the Bale Mountain area (Image 2) where 8500 surrounding village households have more than 12500 domestic dogs (Randall et al, 2006).

Recommendations

By using mt DNA restriction fragments and microsatellite alleles, Gottelli et al (1994) provided convincing evidence that male domestic dogs were hybridizing with female (Web valley) Ethiopian wolves. It was recommended that feral domestic dogs be controlled to eliminate this threat. Furthermore captive breeding with genetically pure founders was suggested with immediate effect.

Image 3..

References

Andersone BZ, Lucchini V, Ozolins J (2002) Hybridisation between wolves and dogs in Latvia as documented using mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA markers. Mammalian Biology 67: 79-90

Gottelli D, Marino J, Sillero-Zubiri C, Funk SM (2004) The effect of the last glacial age on speciation and population genetic structure of the endangered Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis). Molecular ecology 13: 2275-2286

Gottelli D, Sillero-Zubiri C, Applebaum GD, Roy MS, Girman DJ, Garcia-Moreno J, Ostrander EA, Wayne RK (1994) Molecular genetics of the most endangered canid: the Ethiopian wolf Canis simensis. Molecular ecology 3: 301-312

IUCN data (web reference)- http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/3748/doc

Marino J, Sillero-Zubiri C, Macdonald DW (2006) Trends, dynamics, and resilience of an Ethiopian wolf population. Animal conservation 9: 49-58

Miller, GT (2004) Living in the environment-13th Ed. McGraw/Hill, Canada.

Randall DA, Marino J, Haydon DT, Sillero-Zubiri C, Knobel DL, Tallents LA, Macdonald DW, Laurenson MK (2006) An integrated disease management strategy for the control of rabies in Ethiopian wolves Biological conservation 131: 151-162

Sillero-Zubiri C, Gottelli D, Macdonald DW (1996) Male philopatry, extra-pack copulations and inbreeding avoidance in Ethiopian wolves (Canis simensis). Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology 38:331-340 In: Randall DA, Marino J, Haydon DT, Sillero-Zubiri C, Knobel DL, Tallents LA, Macdonald DW, Laurenson MK (2006) An integrated disease management strategy for the control of rabies in Ethiopian wolves Biological conservation 131: 151-162

Sillero-Zubiri C, Macdonald DW (1998) Scent marking and territorial behaviour of Ethiopian wolves Canis simensis. J. Zool, Lond. 245: 351-361

Image credits: National Geographic magazine, March 2006.
photographs by: Anup Shah
Available from:
http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0603/feature6/index.html

INTERACTIVE KEY ON WHALES AND DOLPHINS

2007-04-01T11:31:00.000+02:00

Key 5a. Confirmatory characters

Characters: 21 in data, 14 included, 8 in key.
Items: 11 in data, 11 included, 14 in key.
Parameters: Rbase = 1.40 Abase = 2.00 Reuse = 1.01 Varywt = .80
Characters included: 1–2 6–14 16 20–21
Character reliabilities: 1–21,5.0

1(0).

Colour above
black-blue ... Balaena glacialis

Colour above white... Megaptera novaeangliae

Colour above black... 2
Colour above
pale-grey... Delphinus delphis

Colour above grey... 5
Colour above
dark-grey... 6
Colour above dark
blue-grey... Stenella coeruleoalba

2(1).

Echolocation present ... 3
Echolocation
unknown... 4

3(2).

Snout rounded; Dorsal fin absent; Migration unknown; Attack humans unknown
... Lissodelphis peronii

Snout unknown; Dorsal fin present; Migration yes; Attack humans
never... Orcinus orca

4(2).

Snout rounded ... Cephalorhynchus
heavisidii, Lagenorhynchus obscurus

Snout unknown... Delphinus delphis

5(1).

Colour below off-white speckled with grey spots; Snout moderate length;
Body robust ... Tursiops truncatus

Colour below grey; Snout unknown; Body very large and
prune-like... Physeter macrocephalus

6(1).

Snout moderate length ... Tursiops truncatus

Snout rounded... Lagenorhynchus obscurus

Snout unknown... Sousa plumbea

KEY ON DOLPHINS AND WHALES

2007-04-01T10:21:00.000+02:00

Characters: 23 in data, 16 included, 1 in key.
Items: 11 in data, 11 included, 11 in key.
Parameters: Rbase = 1.40 Abase = 2.00 Reuse = 1.01 Varywt = .80
Characters included: 1–2 6–16 18 22–23
Character reliabilities: 1–23,5.0

1(0).

* Distinctive characteristic criss-cross figure-of-eight pattern on the sides ... Delphinus delphis
* Distinctive characteristic darker grey "cape" on the back... Tursiops truncatus
* Distinctive characteristic white lobe pointing obliquely backwards towards the tail... Cephalorhynchus heavisidii
* Distinctive characteristic 3 grey lines running backwards from the eye... Stenella coeruleoalba
* Distinctive characteristic mid dorsal elongate ridge on back... Sousa plumbea
* Distinctive characteristic long, narrow flippers... Megaptera novaeangliae
* Distinctive characteristic enormous, blunt head... Physeter macrocephalus
* Distinctive characteristic gey saddle behind dorsal fin... Orcinus orca
* Distinctive characteristic two-tone dorsal fin... Lagenorhynchus obscurus
* Distinctive characteristic dorsal fin absent... Lissodelphis peronii
* Distinctive characteristic none... Balaena glacialis

REFERENCING??

2007-03-31T14:01:00.000+02:00

I've got a question to anyone that's willing to help:

Is it acceptable to use number as well as formal (stating authority in full) referencing simultaneously in-text? E.g. "Butterlies exist as metapopulations [3]. According to Jackson (1993) it is the most prevalent population structure."
(Bear in mind that these are two different sources).

PRESENTATION ABSTRACT-METAPOPULATIONS WITH A SPECIAL FOCUS ON BUTTERFLY POPULATIONS

2007-03-28T16:32:00.000+02:00

In 1969 and 1970, Richard Levins introduced the term “metapopulation” in his work on the biological control of pests (Hanski and Gilpin, 1997; Levins, 1969). He used models of migration, extinction, and local fluctuation to study the population processes of pests in a heterogenous environment (Levins, 1969). Levin’s work marked the beginning of contemporary metapopulation biology.

The literal meaning of the word metapopulation is a ‘population of populations’. Hanski and Gilpin (1997) define a metapopulation as a set of local populations within a larger area, where migration from one local population to other habitat patches are possible. These groups of local populations usually occur in suitable, discrete (i.e. separate and discontinuous) habitat patches that are scattered in a landscape. This spatial arrangement allows the populations to interact via the dispersal of individuals across a matrix of unsuitable habitat (Baguette and Schtickzelle, 2003). This ‘ensemble’ of populations results in dynamic interactions between local populations through migration (Marquet, 2002). These interactions are explained and interpreted by metapopulation modelling and theory.

Image 1. The Glanville fritillary butterfly
(Melitaea cinxia)

The aim of this forthcoming presentation will be to introduce metapopulation theory within the context of butterfly metapopulations. Butterflies will be used for the simple reason that their populations are often structured in space in a manner that is broadly consistent with the metapopulation concept. As a result the concept will be more clearly illustrated. This case study approach will furthermore highlight the relevance of the metapopulation concept to wildlife conservation and current environmental issues.

References

Baguette M,Schtickzelle N (2003) Local population dynamics are important to the conservation of metapopulations in highly fragmented landscapes. Journal of applied ecology 40: 404-412.

Hanski IA, Gilpin ME (1997)Metapopulation Biology- Ecology,Genetics, and Evolution. Academic press, San Diego. ISBN 0 12 323446 8

Levins,R (1969) Some demographic and genetic consequences of environmental heterogeneity. Entomological Society of America 15:237-240

Image credit:
http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0040150

GENETICALLY MODIFIED SUICIDE...

2007-03-28T12:27:00.000+02:00

Recently I read an interesting article in the Science and Technology section of the Sunday Times. The article was on genetically modified insects, specifically mosquitoes in order to control disease.

We are all aware of Malaria, but not many of us know how it “works” or what it actually is. Malaria is caused by a parasite (representatives of the genus Plasmodium) that infects the blood and is transmitted to potential hosts through the saliva of the mosquito. According to the article, Malaria is second only to HIV and AIDS when it comes to how many people it kills each year. This is estimated to be around 2.7 million lives annually.

What scientists have done is to genetically engineer a mosquito that is resistant to the parasite itself, which can drastically impact the efficiency of transmission. The proposal is to release these mosquitoes into the wild where malaria is prevalent and where the natural biodiversity exists which includes the genetic component of the wild mosquitoes. In wild mosquitoes, the actual infection with malaria parasites does impact that mosquito’s reproductive potential, however previous studies with genetically modified mosquitoes proved that the wild forms were still fitter. Basically what this means is that even though genetically modified mosquitoes could have been introduced into the wild population earlier, they would have been out-competed by the wild forms which were genetically predisposed to survive better in the environment. Now unfortunately, the scientists seem to have unlocked this barrier and have now produced a genetically modified form that is fitter than the wild form!

So you may ask what this has to do with biodiversity then? Well, since a component of biodiversity is genetic, the introduction of a genetically modified mosquito would eventually cause the local extinction of the wild gene pool. What is more alarming is the apparent lack of forethought in the scientists who have not even mentioned the concern over the effects of co-evolution in parasitism, which can occur at a faster rate in the parasite than in the host. The Red Queen Hypothesis explains that parasites and their hosts are in a continuous battle or evolutionary “arms race” and that each has to keep up to remain within the folds of a dynamic equilibrium. If the mosquitoes that are introduced have a genetically predisposed higher resistance to the actual parasite, it is almost certain that this would fuel a reciprocal response in the parasite’s evolution in order to survive. If this response is to produce more aggressive forms of Plasmodium spp., the result could be even worse for infected people…

Something to think about.

David Vaughan
Senior aquarist, Quarantine
Two Oceans Aquarium
Cape Town, South Africa
+27 21 418 38 23
dvaughan@aquarium.co.za

Article in Sunday Times, 25 March 2007, Science and Technology, page 33.

Image credit:

http://library.thinkquest.org/03oct/00946/pic_used/WNS_vector.jpg

AIR POLLUTION, A LETHAL INJECTION

2007-03-28T11:11:00.000+02:00

Air pollution affects biodiversity on a great scale. The atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere are negatively affected by pollution [1]. Air pollution affects lower life forms more than higher life forms. Plants are generally more affected than animals on land, but not in fresh water. A decline in most species due to pollution is evident except for a minority that increase. I will be focussing on plants and how they are affected by air pollution.

Plants constantly take up atmospheric gases i.e. air everyday to sustain their biological processes. Vegetation growing under optimum conditions is most susceptible to air pollution [2]. As air pollution is for the most part man-made, we are the main source of this phenomenon. Pollution can be derived from two kinds of sources namely, stationary and multiple point sources. Stationary point sources include backyard fires (on a small scale) and the burning of a thousand tons of coal each day in coal-fired electrical power plants (on a large scale). Multiple point sources are usually mobile and include automobiles and other vehicles. The vehicles are the most important source of atmospheric pollutants as they release carbon monoxide. This is followed by industrials sources which release sulphur oxides, steam and electric power plants, space heating and lastly refuse burning. Agricultural chemicals also form part of air pollution [3].

The uptake of pollutants depends on the concentration gradient between the ambient air and the absorptive sites within the leaf. It also depends on the conductance of the stomata. The toxic effect of a pollutant may thus be almost directly related to the functioning of the stomata. Stomata openings are related to the physiological activity of the plant in that they regulate gas exchange; correlation exists between the extent of air pollution effects and the degree of opening of the stomata [2]. Pollutant flow may be restricted by the physical structures of leaves or scavenging by competing chemical reactions. However, as conditions change the ambient dose to which plants are exposed does not necessarily reflect actual cellular exposure. The initial flux of gases to the surface is controlled by boundary layer resistance i.e. the amount of gas able to contact the surface. This includes epidermal characteristics and air movement across the leaf.

At slower wind speeds (less that 2m/s), boundary layer thickness decreases as wind speed increases. Thus more pollutant enters the leaf when air is in motion. Pubescence is also important in that leaf hairs provide major areas of impact. Cuticle wax is also important in limiting uptake even if the cuticle is thin. Stomatal resistance is the most critical. Resistance is determined by stomatal number, size, anatomical characteristics for example the degree to which stomata is sunken and the size of the stomatal apperature [4].

The effect of pollution on the plants is usually visible in one form or the other. Pollution injury can be classed as acute, chronic (chlorotic) or hidden. In acute conditions intercostal leaf areas first take on a water-soaked appearance. The leaves then become dry and bleached to an ivory colour in some species while in others they become brown to brownish red. In the case of chronic injury the leaves become yellow and bleach until most of the chlorophyll and carotenoids are destroyed. This is caused by absorption of gas, insufficient to cause acute injury or absorption of sub lethal amounts over an extended time [3].

As the pollutants are taken up a “damage process” is followed. The epidermis is the first target as air pollution passes through the stomata and acts on this opening. The intercellular spaces are next affected as the pollutants dissolves in the surface water of the leaf cells changing the pH of the cells. In the second step the walls of the mesophyll cells are affected. As the walls contain cellulose, the cell membranes are most likely affected, notably their protein components.

As the pollutants react within the plant it is not necessarily in its original form. The pollutants pass into solution and form free radicals with electric charges. These radicals are more reactive and toxic. In the third step the cell organelles are affected for example, the chloroplast and mitochondria. In the case of the chloroplast the inner thylakoid membrane is the most sensitive. The enzymes of thylakoid and protein components of membranes are most likely to be targets. The precise protein will vary with the pollutant. Enzymes essential to carbon dioxide fixation is especially sensitive. In the mitochondria respiration, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism is adversely affected by air pollution. Changes in the ultra structure of the organelles are the first symptom of injury. The symptoms vary with the pollutant [4]. Some particular processes of sexual reproduction in plants are known to be very sensitive to toxic gases [5]. This therefore causes long-term changes to population ecology.

From the above information it is obvious to see that air pollution has severe adverse effects on the ultra structure and biological processes of plants. As plants form the bases of all food chains and also supplies us with oxygen, we should value and treasure them. Many of our forest ecosystems will be destroyed or at least be disturbed, resulting in considerable changes in plant communities and losses of plant resources and ecosystems. We should therefore increase our awareness of pollution in general and see what we are able to do to decrease pollution levels.

Air pollution also changes the distribution of many plants species and plant communities. It reduces biodiversity and does not respect boundaries set by conservation areas and nature reserves. Air pollution therefore contributes to the decline of biodiversity on a global scale. This global impact is also evident with climatic changes i.e. increase in temperature caused by gases polluting the atmosphere [6].

Something needs to be done to reduce pollution at the source. This can be done by reducing energy demands, conserving energy, switching of fuel and having technical pollution controls. The sixth major extinction is being triggered by humans’ inconsideration for our planet. Deforestation and fossil-fuel combustion have caused an increase in carbon dioxide by 30% in the past three centuries. We have already caused the extinction of 5-20% of the species in many groups of organisms. How much more disaster are we going to cause and what will it take to bring about a reformation? Air pollution is only one factor that influences biodiversity but controlling it can make the world of difference.

References:

[1] McNeely, J.A., Gadgil, M., Lévêque, C., Padoch, C. & Redford, K. (1995). Human influences on biodiversity. In: Global biodiversity assessment, V.H. Heywood (ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 711—821. 0-521-56481-6 ISBN

[2] Stern, A.C., Wohlers, H.C., Boubel, R.W., Lowry, W.P. (1973). Fundamentals of Air Pollution. Academic Press, New York.

[3] Kozlowski, T.T., Mudd, J.B. (1975). Responses of Plants to Air Pollution. Academic Press Inc., New York.

[4] Anderson, F.K., Threshow, M. (1991). Plant stress from Air Pollution. John Wiley and sons, New York.

[5] Scholz, F., Gregorious, H.R., Rudin, D. (1987). Genetic Effects of Air Pollution in Forest Tree Populations. Springer-Verlag, New York.

[6] Leemans, R. (1996) Biodiversity and global change. In: Biodiversity, a biology of numbers and difference, K.J. Gaston (ed.), Blackwell Science, Oxford, pp. 367—387. 0-86542-804-2 ISBN

[7]http://www.equilibriumconsultants.com/publications/docs/airpollutionandbiodi4f9.pdf

THE DYNAMIC FUNCTIONING OF MANGROVES

2007-03-28T09:09:00.000+02:00

Mangrove ecosystems are essentially tropical to subtropical ecosystems, structurally dominated by trees and shrubs, some herbaceous plants and vines with associated biota. Mangroves predominantly occur along coastal areas and inhabit the fringes of estuaries (Nybakken 2005). Mangroves, seagrasses and coral reef tropical ecosystems are discrete ecosystems frequently occurring in close proximity to one another and interact with one another through the exchange of energy in the form of dissolved organic matter and faunal migration (Kitheka 1997).

Factors needed for the development of mangroves

Mangroves occur on soft, muddy, dark substrata that are frequently waterlogged, creating an anoxic environment due to reduced interstitial circulation and high bacterial activity (Nybakken 2005). These ecosystems occur in coastal areas or estuaries which are well protected from wave action. The latter explain why mangroves develop most extensively in regions behind coral reefs (Hogarth 1999). Reduced wave action allows for the settling out of fine silts and sediments which associated organic matter suspended in river inflows. In addition reduced wave action is required for the settling and establishment of new seedlings (Nybakken 2005). Mangroves are essentially facultative halophytes and have unique adaptations to cope with high salinities. Mangroves are terrestrial flowering plants that have reinvaded salt water and hence cannot survive in water of too high salinity. Being and estuarine ecosystem, mangroves experience continuous fluctuations in salinity with tidal action (Hogarth 1999). The distribution of mangrove forests is dictated by the relative sea surface temperature. They are mainly distributed within the winter position of the 20 °C isotherm (Nybakken 2005). However, these ecosystems may occur further south or north where currents bring warm water to the east coast of continents. Due to their sensitivity to freezing, mangroves do not extend into temperate habitats (Nybakken 2005). Mangroves require tidal action for their survival as the latter inundates roots with oxygenated salt water and replenishes nutrients. Tidal action prevents soil salinities from reaching lethal levels especially in areas with high rates of evapotranspiration (Nybakken 2005). The duration of tidal flooding dictates the degree of sedimentation in mangrove ecosystems. However, if root systems (aerial roots) are submerged for too long, mangroves can literally downed due to a lack of oxygen (Hogarth 1999).
Mangroves have adaptations that allows then to outcompete their terrestrial counterparts.

Mangroves are facultative halophytes, inhabiting stressful anoxic, saline environments because of their inability to compete with terrestrial freshwater angiosperms (Nybakken 2005). These ecosystems thrive in these seemingly stressful environments due to the acquisition of physiological, morphological and reproductive adaptations that allow them to cope with anoxia and osmotic problems.Many species of mangrove plants such as Bruguiera sp actively excrete salt via the roots, whereas other accumulate salt in older leaves which they later shed (for example Xylocarpus sp) (Hogarth 1999). Most mangroves have succulent sclerophylous leaves containing specialized water storing tissue. Alternatively as seen in Avicennia sp and Sonneratia sp, the leaves can contain salt exuding glands on the ventral and dorsal surfaces (Hogarth 1999). To reduce the osmotic gradients for the outward diffusion of water from the plant tissue, some mangrove species store amino acids in their internal fluid (Nybakken 2005). Rhizophora is less successful in preventing salt uptake, and as a consequence the internal salt concentrations may reach as high as 3 ‰, more than 100 times that of terrestrial plants (Branch and Branch 1981). Mangroves have a range of xeromorphic features in order to cope with the osmotic loss of water. These features include a thick leaf epidermal tissue layer, covered by a waxy cuticle. The leaves often contain fine hairs on the ventral surfaces and stomata are sunken (Hogarth 1999).
As adaptations to anoxic conditions most mangrove plants are shallow rooted with horizontal cable roots extending just below the mud surface. In Avicennea marina, vertical above ground pencil roots extend from the cable roots (Branch and Branch 1981). These pencil roots or pneumatophores contain lenticels which function in aeration of the roots (Nybakken 2005). Similarly Bruguera gymnorrhiza and Xylocarpus sp have knee roots and blade roots respectively, that branch from its cable roots and functions in gas exchange (Branch and Branch 1981). Rhizophora sp lacks cable roots but are shallowly anchored by a system of prop roots. In addition stem tendrils which extend from the braches or stem functions in gas exchange (Nybakken 2005). Sonneratia alba has above ground pneumatophores similar to that of Avicennia sp, however these are not pencil-like but can be more than 10 cm in diameter and are associated with fungal hyphae aiding in aeration and nutrient acquisition (Hogarth 1999). In most mangroves the section of the pneumatophores (or above ground root) penetrating the soil is often adapted with specialized aerenchyma tissue. Aerenchyma has a regular arrangement of air spaces in its interior called lacunae lending both floatation and aeration throughout the plant (Hogarth 1999).

Mangroves are able to optimize the dispersal and survival of their seedlings by being viviparous. In this way the seed germinates and develops into a seedling while still attached to the parent plant. The seedling is only released once sufficient roots have developed. Once released into the water column, the seedling floats with prevailing currents to a new location where it is able to settle and set roots in shallow waters (Nybakken 2005).

Mangroves and Coral Reefs are never found in the immediate vicinity of one another

Mangroves and coral reefs are both tropical ecosystems that are frequently found in close proximity to one another and are interconnected via the exchange of energy in the form of organic matter and animal migration during spawning and feeding (Kitheka 1997). However, these two discrete ecosystems are never found in the immediate vicinity of one another due to the fact that they thrive in contrasting physical environments.
The interaction between mangroves and coral reefs are not clear cut. Coral reefs stabilize the seascape by dissipating wave action and over geological time create areas protected from wave action, favouring the development of mangroves, while mangroves (and seagrasses ) act as chemical and physical buffers to the influence of land runoff on coral reef ecosystems (Birkeland 1997). Mangroves have the capacity to filter land runoff, removing terrestrial particulate and dissolved organic matter, trap and bind sediment, essentially promoting downstream coral reef growth. However, sporadic events such as Hurricane Andrew that hit the Florida Peninsula in August 1992, is a reminder of why these two ecosystems occur some distance from each other (Hogarth 1999). Heavy precipitation and wave action flushed large quantities of accumulated material from mangrove and seagrass sinks into downstream coral reef ecosystems (Birkeland 1997). Coral reefs are extremely vulnerable to sedimentation, eutrophication in the form of dissolved organic matter and fluctuations in salinity. Fine sediments and silts cause clogging of the mouth parts of coral polyps and hence prevent respiration subsequently leading to smothering of these polyps. The inflow of fine silts increases the turbidity of reef water, essentially decreasing the amount of light reaching corals and so doing decreasing the photosynthetic ability of obligate mutualistic zooxanthallae (Birkeland 1997).

Associated with mangrove sediment and mud is large amounts of dissolved organic matter. Coral reef ecosystems thrive in oligotrophic waters (Koop et al. 2001). Eutrophication increases the growth of opportunistic fleshy macro algae which outcompete corals for space and prevent coral larval settlement (McCook 1999). Increased levels of dissolved organic matter also lead to sporadic algal bloom events which further increases the turbidity of the reef water. Increased levels of dissolved nitrogen and phosphorous tends to disrupt the mutualistic relationship between zooxanthallae and coral polyps and as a result reduce coral calcification (Ferrier-Pages et al. 2000). Coral reefs are stenohaline and are not able to tolerate the fluctuation in salinity which is brought about when brackish mangrove derived water enter highly saline coral reef water.

The success of mangrove ecosystems is attributable to their ability to exclude stronger terrestrial competitors from the seemingly stressful habitats in which they occur. Mangroves have unique physiological, morphological and reproductive adaptations which allow them to thrive in conditions in which their terrestrial counterparts would be unable to. Mangroves interact with other tropical coastal ecosystems (seagrasses and coral reefs) via the exchange of dissolved organic matter and provide a spawning ground for many reef fish and invertebrates. Due to the catastrophic effect that disturbed mangroves can have on coral reefs, these two ecosystems are never found in the immediate vicinity of one another.

References

Birkeland C (1997) Life and death of Coral Reefs. Chapman & Hall, New York, USA. ISBN 0412035413, pp 536

Branch G, Branch M (1981) The living shores of Southern Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape Town. ISBN 0869771159, pp 272

Ferrier-Pages C, Gattuso J, Dallot S, Jaubert J (2000) Effect of nutrient enrichment on growth and photosynthesis of the zooxanthallate coral Stylophora pistillata. Coral Reefs 19: 103-113

Hogarth P (1999) The Biology of Mangroves. Oxford University Press, New York. ISBN 0198502230, pp 228

OPTION TO REPLACE TESTS WITH A WRITTEN EXAM

2007-03-27T07:17:00.000+02:00

If any of you are unhappy about the interactive tests, I am prepared to set a "normal" exam on the same material (six Powerpoints) which we could write on Thursday 5 April 2007. If you are interested in this option you will not have to do any further interactive tests, but in order for me to do the paper work (e.g. get the internal and external examiners to check the paper out) you will need to post a reply to this blog by Thursday 12am latest. The exam will be essay-based so it will not test fine detail but broader knowledge and I will set it. If you elect this option it will replace your marks obtained from the interactive tests whether it is higher or lower. The purpose of the tests are to ensure learning compliance. This offer is made to each of the class members on an individual basis.

DESCRIPTION OF Breviceps Poweri

2007-03-26T16:07:00.000+02:00

Breviceps poweri Parker,1934 (Power's rain frog)

Female length 50 mm.
Lower surface texture unknown.
Lower surface colour unknown.
Tympanum not visible.
Inner toes unknown.
Outer toes unknown.
Endemism not endemic to South Africa.
Advertisement call whistle.
Call position unknown.
Call frequency 1.5 kHz.
Eye size unknown.
Dorsum colour brown/black.
Dorsum pattern unknown.

date of photo February,2006
location Mughese Forest Reserve (Misuku hills,Malawi)
photographer Vincenzo Mercurio

available at:
http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/browse_imgs/amphibian_sci_8.html
reference:Channing, A (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Pp 209-228 ISBN 1 919825 63 0

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES WITHIN THE GENUS BREVICEPS(8)

2007-03-26T15:58:00.000+02:00

Breviceps adspersus Peters,1882 (Common rain frog)

Female length 60 mm.
Lower surface texture smooth.
Lower surface colour light.
Tympanum not visible.
Inner toes as long as wide.
Outer toes as long as wide.
Endemism not endemic to South Africa.
Advertisement call unknown.
Call position underground.
Call frequency 2 kHz.
Eye size unknown.
Dorsum colour unknown.
Dorsum pattern patches/flecks.

date of photo October 19,1995
latitude 32.35290
longitude 29.56160
location Cape Province,Hogsback (SA)
habitat coastal forest
photographer Robert C. Drewes

available at:
http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/browse_imgs/amphibian_sci_8.html

reference:
Channing, A (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Pp 209-228 ISBN 1 919825 63 0

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES WITHIN THE GENUS BREVICEPS(7)

2007-03-26T15:50:00.000+02:00

Breviceps namaquensis Power,1926 (Namaqua rain frog)

Female length 45 mm.
Lower surface texture smooth.
Lower surface colour light.
Tympanum unknown.
Inner toes as long as wide.
Outer toes unknown.
Endemism endemic to South Africa.
Advertisement call whistle.
Call position unknown.
Call frequency 1.3–1.5 kHz.
Eye size large.
Dorsum colour brown/black.
Dorsum pattern unknown.

available from:
http://www.houthoop.co.za/Photo_Reptiles.shtml
reference: Channing, A (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Pp 209-228 ISBN 1 919825 63 0

NATURE'S INVESTMENTS INTO PAST BIODIVERSITY

2007-03-26T15:33:00.000+02:00

Biodiversity can be defined as the number and variability of species, genes and communities, temporally and spatially (Sepkoski 1997). Understanding past biodiversity is important if one wants to understand the evolutionary processes that generated present biodiversity. However, our understanding of biodiversity is strongly influenced by factors such as: completeness of the fossil record, taxonomic accuracy, precision of dating fossils and quality of preservation of these fossils (Sepkoski 1997). In the present essay, past biodiversity and the methods used to reconstruct past biodiversity will be discussed.

Reconstructing the ecological history of the Calamiteans

Wang et al (2006) used fossils and comparative anatomy and morphology to reconstruct various aspects of extinct Calamiteans (a group of gymnosperms). Today, only one extant genus, namely Equisetum spp is known. A permineralized fossil stem of Arthropitys yunnanensis was found in a mine spoil at Housuo Coal Mine, eastern Yunnan Province, southwestern China, preserved in volcaniclastic tuffs. The stem dated back to the upper Permian. The stem was cut into a longitudinal and horizontal section using a rock saw. Subsequently exposed surfaced were prepared by the acetate peel technique using HCl (hydrochloric acid) to notch the carbonate matrix. The fossil stem showed morphological and anatomical features that have subsequently been lost in modern species. From the study they found that A. yunnanensis had a thick secondary xylem with growth rings, which suggests that the species experienced frequent fluctuations in environmental stresses, such as water availability during drought. The lignified secondary xylem of the stem suggested that it had a semi-self supporting habit. Leaf traces arranged in two whorls were found in the cortex. This indicated that A. yunnanensis had oblique to vertical leaves, which is in contrast with the generalization that members of the genus Arthropitys all had horizontal leaves. The study neatly showed how Calamiteans have changed over time and in addition gave some idea of what the general habit during the Upper Permian.

Using the fossil record to reconstruct the history of Ichthyosaurus

In a paper by Martill (1996), the morphology, anatomy and habit of the Ichthyosaurs; extinct marine tetrapods are described based on fossil evidence, dentition and comparative anatomy. These reptilian, but presumably warm-blooded tetrapods were exclusively marine. Hence, the fossil record shows numerous well preserved specimens. These animals are usually preserved in open marine sedimentary rocks, such as clays and shale which is slightly enriched with organic carbon. These organisms first appear in the fossil record in the lower Triassic, at which stage it resembled the crocodilians. Early Jurassic specimens show a change in body form, and resembled primitive dolphins. The fossil record shows temporal changes in dentition amoungst these organisms, which also suggest changes in feeding habits. Specimens have been found in Posidonia Shale of Southern Germany (around the Late Jurassic), that showed soft tissue outlines, stomach contents and even the embryo in the body cavity. From the soft tissue, it was observed that the width and length of the limbs of Early and Late Jurassic forms were greatly enhanced. The latter suggests that these forms had a rapid means of locomotion. When stomach contents were examined, hooklets of belemnites were found, and rarely fish remains (fish remains were only found in juvenile guts). The belemnites were bottom dwelling mollusks and this suggests that the Ichthyosaurs fed in deeper water. In support of the latter idea, specimens such as Ophthalmosaurus of the Early Jurassic had enormous eyes which are thought to have enhanced vision during feeding in deeper dark water. It is thought that Ichthyosaurs underwent a transition from surface piscivory to deeper water molluscivory during its life cycle. Like other oceanic sea breather, the bone of Ichthyosaurs was spongy as a way of reducing its body density. From fossil evidence of these animals, we can witness changes in body forms over evolutionary time as well as reconstruct the way in which they lived.

Figure 1: Middle Triassic-Late Cretaceous fossil Ichthyosuarus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Fishchsaurier-fg01.jpg

Using gall in Psaronius fronds to reconstruct the ecological history of Holometabola

Labandeira and Philips (1996) tried to reconstruct the ecological history of Holometabola from fossil Psaronius tree-fern fronds found from the Upper Pennsylvanian Mattoon Formation of Illinois Basin. The occurrence of insect herbivory during the Late Carboniferous has been questioned, and in the study done by Labandeira and Philips (1996) they suggest that modern insect herbivore types were essentially established in Late Pennsylvanian coal swamp forests. Fossil galls were found in the fronds of Psaronius, and were observed as abnormally-looking parenchyma tissue surrounded by nutritive tissue. The accumulation of this nutritive tissue is the host plants response to endophagous herbivory. The central lumen of the gall was filled with frass (including undigested ground tissue and fecal pellets). The presence of these large, barrel-shaped, solid fecal pellets with fractured ends was evidence that the endophague was a Holometabolan larva. They further suggest that the Holometabolan larva displayed host and tissue specificity (Labandeira and Phillips 1996).

Figure 2: a) Psaronius tree fern, 7 m tall and host of the earliest known plant gall b) Fronds of fossil Psaronius containing gall ca= undigested frass, co=coprolite, lu=gall lumen, nt=nutritive tissue, pa=unmodified parenchyma, vt= vascular tissue.
Labandeira and Philips (1996)

Fossils in Amber

Amber is a form of fossilized tree resin, which has been known to trap various small invertebrates such as insects, spiders and other terrestrial arthropods. Amber fossils provide detailed morphological comparisons with extant relatives of extinct taxa. Arthropods in Amber are known to provide information on past biogeographical distributions and serves as a good indicator of past climatic regimes. Syninclusions (where more than one specimen is entrapped in the resin) provide valuable information on the interaction between organisms (for example: predation, maternal care, mating, parasitism etc.). Further more, the rapid mode of fixation and dehydration during amber formation, may be sufficient to preserve DNA. The latter idea has been questioned, but is more likely than finding DNA in any other fossil type (Penny 2006).

Figure 3: Winged ants in Dominican amber. Formed in a tropical climate, typically 16 million years old. Penny (1996)

Invertebrates are usually poorly represented in the fossil record. However, Sutton et al (2001), show yet another way in which soft-bodied invertebrates can be preserved over geological time. Soft bodied organisms that dominate the Silurian Herefordshire fauna of England were fossilized as three dimensional calcitic fossils within spherical to sub-elliptic calcareous nodules. Here, serial grinding and digital photographic techniques were used to capture three- dimensional morphological information. Serial grinding involves the sequential removal of material via abrasion, from a single planar surface, which is subsequently photographed at each stage (Sutton et al. 2001).

Fossils do not only provide knowledge on past biodiversity, but also on the environments in which extinct taxa lived. Various techniques exist on how to effectively process fossils to yield the highest possible resolution. However the techniques used depend on the fossilized organism and the substrate.

References

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Fischsaurier_fg01.jpg

Labandeira C, Phillips T (1996) A Carboniferous insect gall: Insight into early ecologic history of the Holometabola. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America 93: 8470-8474

Martill D (1996) Fossils explained 17: Ichthyosaurs. Geology Today 194-196

Penny D (2006) Fossils in Amber: Unlocking the secrets of the past. Biologist 53(5): 247-251

Sepkoski J (1997) Biodiversity: Past, Present, and Future. Journal of Paleontology 71 (4) 533-539

Sutton M, Biggs D, Siveter D 1, Siveter D 2 (2001) Methodologies for the Visualization and Reconstruction of three-dimensional fossils from the Silurian Herefordshire Lagerstatte. Palaeontologia Electronica 4 (1): 1-17

Wang S, Hilton J, Galtier J, Tian B (2006) A large anatomically preserved calamitean stem from the Upper Permian of southwest China and its implications for calamitean development and functional anatomy. Plant Systematics and Evolution 261: 229-244

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES WITHIN THE GENUS BREVICEPS(7)

2007-03-26T14:54:00.000+02:00

Breviceps montanus Power,1926 (Mountain rain frog)

Female length 52 mm.
Lower surface texture rough/granular.
Lower surface colour dark.
Tympanum not visible.
Inner toes as long as wide.
Outer toes as long as wide.
Endemism unknown.
Advertisement call whistle.
Call position unknown.
Call frequency 2.2 kHz.
Eye size unknown.
Dorsum colour unknown.
Dorsum pattern vertebral stripe.

date of photo June,1999
photo location Stellenbosch,Cape Province (SA)
photographer Robert C. Drewes

available at:
http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/browse_imgs/amphibian_sci_8.html
reference:
Channing, A (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Pp 209-228 ISBN 1 919825 63 0

FYNBOS: HERITAGE AT OUR FEET

2007-03-26T14:39:00.000+02:00

Cape Floral Kingdom

The Cape Floral Kingdom (CFK) is one of six globally recognized plant kingdoms and occurs in South Africa in the Western Cape Province extending eastwards into the Eastern Cape Province [16]. The Cape Floral Kingdom is the smallest of all six kingdoms and is highly unique as it is the only one fully contained within a single country and is characterized by a high diversity, 8700 plant species, and high endemism, 68% of it’s plant species are confined to this kingdom 90 000km2 large [5]. The CFK consists of the five biomes namely: fynbos, renosterveld, succulent karoo, sub-tropical thicket and afromontane forest [4]. Fynbos is the dominant vegetation of the CFK as 80 percent of the CFK consists of fynbos [8].

Fynbos is evergreen, sclerophyllous shrubland [11] that occurs on nutrient poor soil of the Cape Fold Belt Mountains. It consists of four characteristic growth forms namely proteoids (tall protea shrubs with large leaves), ericoids (heath-like shrub), restiods (reed-like plants) and geophytes (bulbous plants) [4]. The presence of restoid is a distinguishing feature of fynbos as it is always present whereas proteoid and ericoids may be rare and geophytes only appear in winter [8].

Fynbos Biome

There are key biotic and a biotic factors that determine the fynbos distribution, these factors include: summer drought and winter rainfall (mediterranean type climate), low soil nutrients and recurring fire and wind, however, summer drought is a variable component over the South African landscape as it is much more intense in the west than in the east [8]. Biomes are climatically defined but the fynbos biome is not, as the their presence is determined by the absence of nutrients in soils on which they occur [12]. Quartzites and sandstones yield infertile soils whereas the softer shales are more fertile [8]. Fire is a “keystone factor in the long term survival of fynbos” as it plays a major role in its cycle of “destruction, regeneration, maturation and destruction again” [8]. Fire has placed a selective pressure over fynbos and in response small animals and plants have evolved in order to survive. It is not just the physical characteristics of the fire that has such a major influence on fynbos but the complex fire regime i.e. the time lapse between fires, the season in which it burns and the intensity and area it covers [8].

The Origin of Fynbos

Approximately 65 million years ago the present fynbos region was covered with tropical vegetation, ancestral fynbos forms included representatives from the: Proteaceae, Ericaceae and Restionaceae families and were restricted to mountainous areas [8]. Mountains were built of erosion- resistant sandstone that resulted in nutrient poor soils that could have supported heath land-like vegetation [10]. Some CFR palaeoendemics from this era seem to have survived through shelters provided by mountain peaks capturing moisture [14].

About 35 million years ago the climate transformed into a drier and colder type, allowing a form of woodland to occur, this dry period was brought to an end again by the return of a warm moist-tropical period [8]. Then approximately 20 million years ago one of the most historical events in the origin of fynbos occurred, the development of the cold cicum-Antarctic current [8].

This resulted in the complete glaciations of Antarctica approximately 10 million years ago and the formation of the cold Benguela current that ran along the South-Western coast of Africa (Figure 1) [10]. These conditions caused the Mediterranean climatic system typical of the fynbos region as summer-rainfall got blocked off leaving only winter rain [10]. This climatic system was not in favour to the present tropical flora that inevitably became extinct leaving open habitats that the mountainous heath vegetation then occupied [10]. Modern species then radiated from these ancestral lineages, the aridification of the region together with the increase in the fire occurrence played pivotal roles in fynbos diversification [8].

Figure 1:A timeline showing changes in the species diversity and the proportion of area occupied by modern fynbos species [10].

Evolution of Fynbos

This level of endemism observed amongst fynbos vegetation is typically found on islands and is due to the particular geology and geomorphologic evolution of this area: sandy, nutrient poor, acid soils from sandstone and quartzite of the Table Mountain and Wittenberg Groups form the mountains of the Cape Folded Belt tend to be rich in endemism by promotion of speciation [14]. The rugged mountains provided multiple combinations of aspect, substrate and altitude and therefore a vast array of niches for plants to occupy therefore promoting species diversification through niche specialization. Another observation is that the particular location and orientation of the Cape Mountains at the southern tip of Africa favoured speciation as it cut off gene flow from surrounding areas therefore maintaining a “distinct floristic identity” [14].

Adaptations of Fynbos

One important adaptation of fynbos is the high incidence of schlerophylly [12], schlerophyllous plants are hard as they contain ligin that allows plants to resist dry conditions by preventing wilting. Lignin also allows these plants to grow in phosphorus deficient soils (a major nutrient nutrients scarce in the soils) even when phosphorous is lacking for substantial cell growth. In fire-prone ecosystems many plants possess traits that increase their flammability, scherophylly aids in flammability of the vegetation, essential to fynbos as fire is an integral ecosystem process [13].

As mentioned earlier, fire is a major ecological and selective agent in this vegetation as a correct fire regime plays an integral part in fynbos plants and their future generations [7]. Fynbos have adapted to fire by becoming reseeders, which complete their life cycle within a time period and produce seeds (normally fire-protected), or as resprouters [7].

Many fynbos species have established specialized root systems in order to adapt to poor nutrient soil status; root systems include: proteoid roots and versicular arbuscular mycorrhizal root systems [3]. Adaptations of roots have been observed in fynbos plant species, namely mycorrhizal infected and proteoid (cluster) roots. These nutrient aquiring adaptations increase species diversity in the Fynbos biome by promoting co-existence of mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal families [1].

Mycorrhiza is a form of mutualism between roots and soil fungi and two forms exits namely: ectomycorrhizde and endomycorhizzae, the hypae of endomycprrhizae develop extensively within the cortical cells of host roots; vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM) is a form of endomycorhizzae and 62% of flora found with the CFK form VAM [1]. Endomycorrhizas have been found in abundance in certain fynbos plants namely in Ericaceae species [8]. Members of the Rosidae family also possess VAM [3].

Proteaceae and Restionaceae are perennial families that dominate in older fynbos vegetation and contribute a large biomass that does not form mycorrhizal roots but develop proteoid roots (Figure 2) [2]. Most members of the Proteacea family are able to survive and flourish on substrates, typical to that of fynbos, indicating proteoid roots are also a highly effective mechanism for metabolic absorption [15].

Figure 2:A proteoid root formation on a protea plant, also named cluster roots for its obvious appearance [6].

Numerous pollination adaptations have also been observed in the fynbos area but special mention has to made about the Ericaceae family that have the most astonishing display of floral attractions [8]. Ericas are highly adapted to their specific pollinators and attractions come in the form of many visual and olfactory cues.

Adaptations to two ecological drivers namely: soils with a low nutrient status and fire are clearly evident in the Fynbos biome. Fynbos’ extremely high diversity and endemism emphasises its success. Root, fire and pollination adapatations are just a few general mechanisms that have allowed Fynbos to become so successful in such a harsh environment.

References:
1. Allsopp N and Stock WD (1993) Mycorrhizal status of plants growing in the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. Bothalia 23(1): 91-104

2. Allsopp N and Stock WD (1994) VA mycorrhizal infection in relation to edaphic characteristics and disturbances regime in three lowland plant communities in the South-Western Cape, South Africa. Journal of Ecology 82:271-279

3. Allsopp N and Stock WD (1995) Relationship between seed reserves, seedling growth and mycorrhizal responses in 14 related shrubs (Rosidae) from a low nutrient environment. Functional Ecology 9:248-254

4. Anon. Cape Floral Kingdom [Internet]. [Cited 2007 Mar 23] Avaliable from:
http://www.oceansafrica.com/floralkingdom.htm

5. Anon. Fynbos Biome [Internet]. [Cited 2007 Mar 23] Avaliable from:
http://www.plantzafrica.com/vegetation/fynbos.htm

6. Anon. Phytogen [Internet]. [Cited 2007 Mar 23] Available from: http://www.plantsci.org.au/Phytogen/PhytApr01.html

7. Barraclough TG (2006) What can phylogenetics tell us about speciation in the cape flora?.Diversity and Distributions 12:21-26

8. Cowling RM and Richardson D (1995) Fynbos:South Africa’s Unique Floral Kingdom.Fernwood Press, Vlaeberg ,pp 21-40;46-49. ISBN 1-874950-10-5

9. HigginsKB,Lamb AJ and Wilgen (1987) Root systems of selected plant species in mesic mountain fynbos in the jonkershoek valley, south-western cape province. South African Journal of Botany 52(3): 249-257

10. Linder HP and Hardy CR (2004) Evolution of the species-rich cape flora. The Royal Society 359:1623-1632

11. Moll EJ, Jarman (1984) Classification of the Term Fynbos. South African Journal of Sicence 80:351-352

12. Moll EJ, Jarman (1984) Is Fynbos a Heathland. South African Journal of Sicence 80:352-354

13. Schwilk DW and Kerr B (2002) Genetic niche-hiking:an alternative explanation for the evolution of flammability.OIKOS 99:431-442

14. van Wyk A and Smith GF (2001) Regions of Floristic Endemism in Southern Africa: A review with emphasis on Succulents. Umdaus Press, Hatfield, South Africa, pp23-25. ISBN 1-919766-20-0

15. Vorster PW and Jooste JH (1986) Potassium and phosphate absorption by exised ordinary abd proteoid roots of the Proteaceae. South African Journal of Botanty 52(4): 277-282

16. Wikipedia Contributors. Cape Floristic Region [Internet]. [Cited 2007 Mar 13] Available from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_floristic_region

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES WITHIN THE GENUS BREVICEPS(6)

2007-03-26T14:34:00.000+02:00

Breviceps rosei Power,1926 (Rose's rainfrog)

Female length 36 mm.
Lower surface texture smooth.
Lower surface colour light.
Tympanum not visible.
Inner toes as long as wide.
Outer toes as long as wide.
Endemism endemic to South Africa.
Advertisement call whistle.
Call position above ground.
Call frequency 2.1 kHz.
Eye size unknown.
Dorsum colour brown/black.
Dorsum pattern vertebral stripe.

photographer Alan Channing

available at:
http://www.botany.uwc.ac.za/envfacts/fynbos/fynbos_frogs.htm

Reference: Channing, A (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Pp 209-228 ISBN 1 919825 63 0

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES WITHIN THE GENUS BREVICEPS(5)

2007-03-26T14:19:00.000+02:00

Breviceps gibbosus (Giant rain frog)

Female length 60 mm.
Lower surface texture rough/granular.
Lower surface colour light.
Tympanum not visible.
Inner toes as long as wide.
Outer toes unknown.
Endemism endemic to South Africa.
Advertisement call chirp.
Call position underground.
Call frequency 1.1 kHz.
Eye size unknown.
Dorsum colour brown/black.
Dorsum pattern patches/flecks.

date of photo August 10,2002
location Tamboerskloof,Cape Town,Western Province (SA)
camera Olympus OM2N,Zuiko 135mm Macro,-Velvia-
photographer Wolfgang Ochojski
available at:
http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/browse_imgs/amphibian_sci_8.html

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES WITHIN THE GENUS BREVICEPS(4)

2007-03-26T13:58:00.000+02:00

Breviceps fuscus (Black rain frog)

Female length 51 mm.
Lower surface texture smooth.
Lower surface colour dark.
Tympanum not visible.
Inner toes longer than wide.
Outer toes longer than wide.
Endemism endemic to South Africa.
Advertisement call chirp.
Call position above ground.
Call frequency 1.8 kHz.
Eye size small.
Dorsum colour brown/black.
Dorsum pattern no markings.

date of photo 1998
location Big Tree Reserve (SA)
photographer Miguel Vences
available at
http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/browse_imgs/amphibian_sci_8.html